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Code of Conduct
• Respect Others
• Keep it Legal
• Play Nice
• Don't Spam
• Take Responsibility
• Uphold the Code
• Protect your Privacy
As part of Microsoft's commitment to making MSN a great place to meet and interact with others around the world, you agree to abide by our Code of Conduct. Your commitment to this Code of Conduct in all bulletin board services, chat areas, news groups, forums, communities, personal web pages, calendars, electronic mail postings and/or other message or communication facilities designed to enable you to communicate with the public at large or with a group (collectively, "Communication Services"), ensures a positive experience for all our users.
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Respect Others
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Keep it Legal
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Play Nice
• Microsoft does not tolerate disruptive activity online, such as persistent off-topic comments and postings or statements that incite others to violate this Code of Conduct or participate in illegal activities. Our participants want to chat and post on the Communication Services in a positive environment.
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Don't Spam
• Please don't "spam" through the Communication Services; none of our users like it. To spam includes sending identical and irrelevant submissions to many different discussion groups, mailing lists or communities. Usually such postings have nothing to do with the particular topic of the group or are of no real interest to those on the mailing list. To spam also includes misrepresenting the source of anything you say or post. Spamming is a serious violation of online etiquette.
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• Microsoft reserves the right to remove at any time, without notice, any user-created Communication Service (or any particular posting) that violates this Code of Conduct.
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Uphold the Code
• In helping to make the Communication Services a great place to meet and chat, you must do your part to uphold this Code of Conduct.
• Microsoft reserves the right to immediately terminate or suspend access to any Communication Service for violations of our Code of Conduct.
• Microsoft also reserves our right to amend or change the Code of Conduct at any time without notice. You agree to periodically review this document to ensure you are doing your part.
Protect your Privacy
• We caution you against giving out personally identifiable information (such as social security numbers, credit card numbers, names and addresses, driver license numbers) to strangers online, which may be used for illegal or harmful purposes.
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Thanks for following this Code of Conduct and joining MSN Communication Services!
August 1999
Wednesday, May 21, 2008
Seize the Moment
SEIZE THE MOMENT, DO IT NOW
I have a friend who lives by a three-word philosophy: "Seize the moment." Just possibly, she may be the wisest woman on this planet. Too many people put off something that brings them joy just because they haven't thought about it, don't have it on their schedule, didn't know it was coming or are too rigid to depart from their routine.
I got to thinking one day about all those women on the Titanic who passed up dessert at dinner that fateful night in an effort to cut back. From then on, I've tried to be a little more flexible.
How many women out there will eat at home because their husband didn't suggest going out to dinner until after something had been thawed? Does the word "refrigeration" mean nothing to you?
How often have your kids dropped in to talk and sat in silence while you watched Jeopardy! on television?
I cannot count the times I called my sister and said, "How about going to lunch in a half hour?" She would gasp and stammer, "I can't. I have clothes on the line. My hair is dirty. I wish I had known yesterday. I had a late breakfast. It looks like rain. And my personal favorite: "It's Monday". She died a few years ago. We never did have lunch together.
We cram so much into our lives. We tend to schedule our headaches. We live on a sparse diet of promises we make to ourselves when all the conditions are perfect: We'll go back and visit the grandparents when we get Stevie toilet-trained. We'll entertain-when we replace the living-room carpet. We'll go on a second honeymoon when we get two more kids out of college.
Life has a way of accelerating as we get older. The days get shorter, and the list of promises to ourselves gets longer. One morning, we awaken, and all we have to show for our lives is a litany of "I'm going to," "I plan on" and "Someday, when things are settled down a bit."
When anyone calls my seize-the-moment friend, she is open to adventure and available for trips. She keeps an open mind on new ideas. Her enthusiasm for life is contagious. You talk with her for five minutes, and you're ready to trade your bad feet for a pair of Roller blades.
My lips had not touched ice cream in 10 years. I love ice cream. It's just that I might as well apply it directly to my hips with a spatula and eliminate the digestive process. The other day, I stopped the car and bought a triple-decker. If my car had hit an iceberg on the way home, I would have died happy.
When the day is done, do you lie in your bed with the next hundred chores running through your head? If you were going to die soon and had only one phone call you could make, who would you call and what would you say? And why are you waiting?
Now...go on and have a nice day. Do something you WANT to......not something on your SHOULD DO list.
I have a friend who lives by a three-word philosophy: "Seize the moment." Just possibly, she may be the wisest woman on this planet. Too many people put off something that brings them joy just because they haven't thought about it, don't have it on their schedule, didn't know it was coming or are too rigid to depart from their routine.
I got to thinking one day about all those women on the Titanic who passed up dessert at dinner that fateful night in an effort to cut back. From then on, I've tried to be a little more flexible.
How many women out there will eat at home because their husband didn't suggest going out to dinner until after something had been thawed? Does the word "refrigeration" mean nothing to you?
How often have your kids dropped in to talk and sat in silence while you watched Jeopardy! on television?
I cannot count the times I called my sister and said, "How about going to lunch in a half hour?" She would gasp and stammer, "I can't. I have clothes on the line. My hair is dirty. I wish I had known yesterday. I had a late breakfast. It looks like rain. And my personal favorite: "It's Monday". She died a few years ago. We never did have lunch together.
We cram so much into our lives. We tend to schedule our headaches. We live on a sparse diet of promises we make to ourselves when all the conditions are perfect: We'll go back and visit the grandparents when we get Stevie toilet-trained. We'll entertain-when we replace the living-room carpet. We'll go on a second honeymoon when we get two more kids out of college.
Life has a way of accelerating as we get older. The days get shorter, and the list of promises to ourselves gets longer. One morning, we awaken, and all we have to show for our lives is a litany of "I'm going to," "I plan on" and "Someday, when things are settled down a bit."
When anyone calls my seize-the-moment friend, she is open to adventure and available for trips. She keeps an open mind on new ideas. Her enthusiasm for life is contagious. You talk with her for five minutes, and you're ready to trade your bad feet for a pair of Roller blades.
My lips had not touched ice cream in 10 years. I love ice cream. It's just that I might as well apply it directly to my hips with a spatula and eliminate the digestive process. The other day, I stopped the car and bought a triple-decker. If my car had hit an iceberg on the way home, I would have died happy.
When the day is done, do you lie in your bed with the next hundred chores running through your head? If you were going to die soon and had only one phone call you could make, who would you call and what would you say? And why are you waiting?
Now...go on and have a nice day. Do something you WANT to......not something on your SHOULD DO list.
Comic Search Error Page
These Weapons of Mass Destruction cannot be displayed
The weapons you are looking for are currently unavailable. The country might be experiencing technical difficulties, or you may need to adjust your weapons inspectors mandate.
Please try the following:
• Click the Regime change button, or try again later.
• If you are George Bush and typed the country's name in the address bar, make sure that it is spelled correctly. (IRAQ).
• To check your weapons inspector settings, click the UN menu, and then click Weapons Inspector Options. On the Security Council tab, click Consensus. The settings should match those provided by your government or NATO.
• If the Security Council has enabled it, The United States of America can examine your country and automatically discover Weapons of Mass Destruction.
If you would like to use the CIA to try and discover them,
click Detect Weapons
• Some countries require 128 thousand troops to liberate them. Click the Panic menu and then click About US foreign policy to determine what regime they will install.
• If you are an Old European Country trying to protect your interests, make sure your options are left wide open as long as possible. Click the Tools menu, and then click on League of Nations. On the Advanced tab, scroll to the Head in the Sand section and check settings for your exports to Iraq.
• Click the Bomb button if you are Donald Rumsfeld.
Cannot find weapons or CIA Error
Iraqi Explorer
The weapons you are looking for are currently unavailable. The country might be experiencing technical difficulties, or you may need to adjust your weapons inspectors mandate.
Please try the following:
• Click the Regime change button, or try again later.
• If you are George Bush and typed the country's name in the address bar, make sure that it is spelled correctly. (IRAQ).
• To check your weapons inspector settings, click the UN menu, and then click Weapons Inspector Options. On the Security Council tab, click Consensus. The settings should match those provided by your government or NATO.
• If the Security Council has enabled it, The United States of America can examine your country and automatically discover Weapons of Mass Destruction.
If you would like to use the CIA to try and discover them,
click Detect Weapons
• Some countries require 128 thousand troops to liberate them. Click the Panic menu and then click About US foreign policy to determine what regime they will install.
• If you are an Old European Country trying to protect your interests, make sure your options are left wide open as long as possible. Click the Tools menu, and then click on League of Nations. On the Advanced tab, scroll to the Head in the Sand section and check settings for your exports to Iraq.
• Click the Bomb button if you are Donald Rumsfeld.
Cannot find weapons or CIA Error
Iraqi Explorer
Miscellaneous Tidbits
Forensic Facts -- Presumptive tests are quick, on-the-spot tests that officers use to make decisions about possible criminal activity. Even on routine traffic duty, officers rely on these tests, which involve chemical reactions that give fast color responses, to detect illegal substances such as heroin, methamphetamine or cocaine.
Did you ever play Kill The Man With The Ball on the playground at school?
Another general who disagreed with the execution of the war got himself involuntarily retired. (He was separated from his wife, and the Army got some dirt on him having an affair.)
A vigilant press, free from fear of reprisal and with confidential sources, is vital to a free society. It is an essential watchdog on government wrongdoing and incompetence. The first thing an autocratic government does when assuming power is to crackdown on the press.
LONDON (Reuters) - A hearse overturned when the horses pulling it to a south London cemetery stampeded, dragging the carriage and coffin past appalled relatives and sending floral tributes flying. "It was dreadful," a mourner told the South London Press. "The horses dragged the carriage to the cemetery on its side, tossing the coffin all over the place and destroying all the flowers inside. "Some people got very angry and had to be restrained by other mourners... It is understandable given the circumstances. I'm horrified that something like this could happen." Police were called to calm angry mourners so that the funeral last month could go ahead. The carriage appeared to have clipped a mini-roundabout as it entered Lambeth Cemetery for the funeral, the local council which administers the graveyard said Friday. (Reporting by Peter Apps, editing by Tim Pearce)
I met his guy awhile ago, and we’ve hung out a couple of times with friends, but we just recently went on a “real” date. We slept together after that first date, but I like him, so now I’m afraid I’ve screwed up. Is it really that bad to have sex on the first date? It’s not bad, but if you’re going to make some intentional decisions to get off on the right foot, then sleeping with someone on the first date isn’t one of them. Yes, even if the chemistry is that good. Flaubert (old French author) believed that anticipation is the purest form of pleasure – and the most reliable. In the final chapter of the Sentimental Education, he writes about two old friends sitting around remembering the best thing that never happened to them. Flaubert said the things that happen to you invariably disappoint, the things that never happen would never dim, never fade. We’ll always remember them fondly. So, put off the sex as long as you want. Not only will the anticipation make him want you that much more, but it will be a form of pleasure all it’s own. Not to mention you’ll make Flaubert a very proud man.
Did you ever play Kill The Man With The Ball on the playground at school?
Another general who disagreed with the execution of the war got himself involuntarily retired. (He was separated from his wife, and the Army got some dirt on him having an affair.)
A vigilant press, free from fear of reprisal and with confidential sources, is vital to a free society. It is an essential watchdog on government wrongdoing and incompetence. The first thing an autocratic government does when assuming power is to crackdown on the press.
LONDON (Reuters) - A hearse overturned when the horses pulling it to a south London cemetery stampeded, dragging the carriage and coffin past appalled relatives and sending floral tributes flying. "It was dreadful," a mourner told the South London Press. "The horses dragged the carriage to the cemetery on its side, tossing the coffin all over the place and destroying all the flowers inside. "Some people got very angry and had to be restrained by other mourners... It is understandable given the circumstances. I'm horrified that something like this could happen." Police were called to calm angry mourners so that the funeral last month could go ahead. The carriage appeared to have clipped a mini-roundabout as it entered Lambeth Cemetery for the funeral, the local council which administers the graveyard said Friday. (Reporting by Peter Apps, editing by Tim Pearce)
I met his guy awhile ago, and we’ve hung out a couple of times with friends, but we just recently went on a “real” date. We slept together after that first date, but I like him, so now I’m afraid I’ve screwed up. Is it really that bad to have sex on the first date? It’s not bad, but if you’re going to make some intentional decisions to get off on the right foot, then sleeping with someone on the first date isn’t one of them. Yes, even if the chemistry is that good. Flaubert (old French author) believed that anticipation is the purest form of pleasure – and the most reliable. In the final chapter of the Sentimental Education, he writes about two old friends sitting around remembering the best thing that never happened to them. Flaubert said the things that happen to you invariably disappoint, the things that never happen would never dim, never fade. We’ll always remember them fondly. So, put off the sex as long as you want. Not only will the anticipation make him want you that much more, but it will be a form of pleasure all it’s own. Not to mention you’ll make Flaubert a very proud man.
Advice to the Love Worn (I mean "Lorn")
Ask Lynn: Advice on love By Lynn Harris
Dear Lynn, I’m writing because I’m having a dilemma. I have an extremely strong attraction to one of my instructors in my grad program. I am 40, and he’s a few years older than me. While I find him very attractive physically, other characteristics attract me as well, such as his intelligence, humor, and compassion. He challenges me, in a good way, which I enjoy.
The way I am drawn to him is not like anything I have ever experienced before, with anyone. It scares me. He has actually taken my breath away when he’s been close to me, and he seems to stand very close to me when talking to me. Others have observed this. What makes this difficult is that while I believe he has an attraction to me, he is in a long-term relationship with “the mother of his son” (his words); they’ve not married. I would not want to do anything to cause problems for him and his relationship.
My dilemma: I want to tell him how I feel. I can’t determine if this would be a good move or foolish. The class he teaches will be ending very soon, and I am not sure when I will see him again. I don’t want to have regrets or a “what if” situation, because I’ve had a few of those in my past. Any thoughts?
– Baffled
Dear Baffled,
Hey, bet you did really well in that class. Handsome, smart, funny, compassionate. You are officially hot for teacher, as the song goes—and what a difficult but delicious feeling it must be!
Unfortunately, however, you’re going to have to try and find that feeling with someone else, someone who is neither in a relationship nor above you on the school totem pole. Even if I could somehow endorse hitting on an instructor in your program, which, for the record, I cannot, I really cannot endorse poaching, which this would be, even if he doesn’t exactly call his partner his “Snookums.” You’re 40—remember the Police song, “Don’t Stand So Close To Me?” Well… that.
I’m truly sorry. I do approve of your impulse here, the one that spurs you to avoid regrets and what-ifs. They can seriously bring you down; just ask the guy at the end of the bar. But while boldness and risk-taking and caution-to-the-wind-throwing are generally to be commended, they are to be eschewed when doing so could constitute home-wrecking or jeopardizing your academic career.
Speaking of “What if,” you’re probably thinking, “But what if he’s miserable in his relationship and he’d leave her (and this job) for me if only he knew how I felt?!” Trust me, that element of mystery is not the only thing holding him back. If things ever do change — or if he wants them to — trust me, through the miracle of Google, he’ll find you. And as for regrets, I have to say: Sometimes it’s better to wish you had than to wish you hadn’t.
Meanwhile, as I suggested earlier, see what you can do to learn from this situation. What does your attraction to him tell you about what you look for in men? Do you see any patterns? (Smart and compassionate: good. Unavailable: less so.) Since, at the moment, your instructor is off-limits, at least let your crush instruct you.
Lynn Harris is co-creator, with Chris Kalb, of the award-winning website, BreakupGirl.net and author of the new comic novel Death By Chick Lit. A journalist and essayist, Lynn also writes about gender, dating, and culture high and low for Salon, Glamour, The New York Times, and others. In her spare time, she enjoys being married. Submit your own dating questions for Lynn at BreakupGirl.net. Your question may be answered in a future column.
Dear Lynn, I’m writing because I’m having a dilemma. I have an extremely strong attraction to one of my instructors in my grad program. I am 40, and he’s a few years older than me. While I find him very attractive physically, other characteristics attract me as well, such as his intelligence, humor, and compassion. He challenges me, in a good way, which I enjoy.
The way I am drawn to him is not like anything I have ever experienced before, with anyone. It scares me. He has actually taken my breath away when he’s been close to me, and he seems to stand very close to me when talking to me. Others have observed this. What makes this difficult is that while I believe he has an attraction to me, he is in a long-term relationship with “the mother of his son” (his words); they’ve not married. I would not want to do anything to cause problems for him and his relationship.
My dilemma: I want to tell him how I feel. I can’t determine if this would be a good move or foolish. The class he teaches will be ending very soon, and I am not sure when I will see him again. I don’t want to have regrets or a “what if” situation, because I’ve had a few of those in my past. Any thoughts?
– Baffled
Dear Baffled,
Hey, bet you did really well in that class. Handsome, smart, funny, compassionate. You are officially hot for teacher, as the song goes—and what a difficult but delicious feeling it must be!
Unfortunately, however, you’re going to have to try and find that feeling with someone else, someone who is neither in a relationship nor above you on the school totem pole. Even if I could somehow endorse hitting on an instructor in your program, which, for the record, I cannot, I really cannot endorse poaching, which this would be, even if he doesn’t exactly call his partner his “Snookums.” You’re 40—remember the Police song, “Don’t Stand So Close To Me?” Well… that.
I’m truly sorry. I do approve of your impulse here, the one that spurs you to avoid regrets and what-ifs. They can seriously bring you down; just ask the guy at the end of the bar. But while boldness and risk-taking and caution-to-the-wind-throwing are generally to be commended, they are to be eschewed when doing so could constitute home-wrecking or jeopardizing your academic career.
Speaking of “What if,” you’re probably thinking, “But what if he’s miserable in his relationship and he’d leave her (and this job) for me if only he knew how I felt?!” Trust me, that element of mystery is not the only thing holding him back. If things ever do change — or if he wants them to — trust me, through the miracle of Google, he’ll find you. And as for regrets, I have to say: Sometimes it’s better to wish you had than to wish you hadn’t.
Meanwhile, as I suggested earlier, see what you can do to learn from this situation. What does your attraction to him tell you about what you look for in men? Do you see any patterns? (Smart and compassionate: good. Unavailable: less so.) Since, at the moment, your instructor is off-limits, at least let your crush instruct you.
Lynn Harris is co-creator, with Chris Kalb, of the award-winning website, BreakupGirl.net and author of the new comic novel Death By Chick Lit. A journalist and essayist, Lynn also writes about gender, dating, and culture high and low for Salon, Glamour, The New York Times, and others. In her spare time, she enjoys being married. Submit your own dating questions for Lynn at BreakupGirl.net. Your question may be answered in a future column.
A PUBLIC SERVICE MESSAGE TO HELP WOMEN BETTER UNDERSTAND MEN
Because I'm a man, when I lock my keys in the car, I will fiddle with a coat hanger long after hypothermia has set in. Calling AAA is not an option. I will win.
Because I'm a man, when the car isn't running very well, I will pop the hood and stare at the engine as if I know what I'm looking at. If another man shows up, one of us will say to the other, "I used to be able to fix these things, but now with all these computers and everything, I wouldn't know where to start." We will then drink a couple of beers and break wind, as a form of Holy Communion.
Because I'm a man, when I catch a cold, I need someone to bring me soup and take care of me while I lie in bed and moan. You're a woman. You never get as sick as I do, so for you, this is no problem.
Because I'm a man, I can be relied upon to purchase basic groceries at the store, like milk or bread. I cannot be expected to find exotic items like "cumin" or "tofu." For all I know, these are the same thing.
Because I'm a man, when one of our appliances stops working, I will insist on taking it apart, despite evidence that this will just cost me twice as much once the repair person gets here and has to put it back together.
Because I'm a man, I must hold the television remote control in my hand while I watch TV. If the thing has been misplaced, I may miss a whole show looking for it, though one time I was able to survive by holding a calculator instead (applies to engineers only).
Because I'm a man, you don't have to ask me if I liked the movie. Chances are, if you're crying at the end of it, I didn't...and if you are feeling amorous afterwards...then I will certainly at least remember the name and recommend it to others.
Because I'm a man, I think what you're wearing is fine. I thought what you were wearing five minutes ago was fine, too. Either pair of shoes is fine. With the belt or without it, looks fine. It does not make your rear look too big. It was the pasta and potatoes and Margaritas that did that. Your hair is fine. You look fine. Can we just go now?
Because I'm a man, and this is after all, the year 2008, I will share equally in the housework. You just do the laundry, the cooking, the cleaning, the vacuuming, and the dishes, and I'll do the rest. Like wandering around in the garden with a beer, wondering what to do.
THIS HAS BEEN A PUBLIC SERVICE MESSAGE TO HELP WOMEN BETTER UNDERSTAND MEN.
Because I'm a man, when the car isn't running very well, I will pop the hood and stare at the engine as if I know what I'm looking at. If another man shows up, one of us will say to the other, "I used to be able to fix these things, but now with all these computers and everything, I wouldn't know where to start." We will then drink a couple of beers and break wind, as a form of Holy Communion.
Because I'm a man, when I catch a cold, I need someone to bring me soup and take care of me while I lie in bed and moan. You're a woman. You never get as sick as I do, so for you, this is no problem.
Because I'm a man, I can be relied upon to purchase basic groceries at the store, like milk or bread. I cannot be expected to find exotic items like "cumin" or "tofu." For all I know, these are the same thing.
Because I'm a man, when one of our appliances stops working, I will insist on taking it apart, despite evidence that this will just cost me twice as much once the repair person gets here and has to put it back together.
Because I'm a man, I must hold the television remote control in my hand while I watch TV. If the thing has been misplaced, I may miss a whole show looking for it, though one time I was able to survive by holding a calculator instead (applies to engineers only).
Because I'm a man, you don't have to ask me if I liked the movie. Chances are, if you're crying at the end of it, I didn't...and if you are feeling amorous afterwards...then I will certainly at least remember the name and recommend it to others.
Because I'm a man, I think what you're wearing is fine. I thought what you were wearing five minutes ago was fine, too. Either pair of shoes is fine. With the belt or without it, looks fine. It does not make your rear look too big. It was the pasta and potatoes and Margaritas that did that. Your hair is fine. You look fine. Can we just go now?
Because I'm a man, and this is after all, the year 2008, I will share equally in the housework. You just do the laundry, the cooking, the cleaning, the vacuuming, and the dishes, and I'll do the rest. Like wandering around in the garden with a beer, wondering what to do.
THIS HAS BEEN A PUBLIC SERVICE MESSAGE TO HELP WOMEN BETTER UNDERSTAND MEN.
Life Is A Gift
Today before you think of saying an unkind word - Think of someone who can't speak.
Before you complain about the taste of your food - Think of someone who has nothing to eat.
Before you complain about your husband or wife - Think of someone who's crying out for a companion.
Today before you complain about life - Think of someone who went too early and is no longer here.
Before you complain about your children - Think of someone who desires children but they're barren.
Before you argue about your dirty house, someone didn't clean or sweep - Think of the people who are living in the streets.
Before whining about the distance you drive - Think of someone who walks the same distance.
And when you are tired and complain about your job - Think of the unemployed, the disabled and those who wished they had your job.
But before you think of pointing the finger or condemning another - Remember that not one of us are without sin and we all answer to one maker.
And when depressing thoughts seem to get you down - Put a smile on your face and be thankful you're alive and still around.
Life is a gift...
Live it...
Enjoy it...
Celebrate it...
And fulfill it.
Before you complain about the taste of your food - Think of someone who has nothing to eat.
Before you complain about your husband or wife - Think of someone who's crying out for a companion.
Today before you complain about life - Think of someone who went too early and is no longer here.
Before you complain about your children - Think of someone who desires children but they're barren.
Before you argue about your dirty house, someone didn't clean or sweep - Think of the people who are living in the streets.
Before whining about the distance you drive - Think of someone who walks the same distance.
And when you are tired and complain about your job - Think of the unemployed, the disabled and those who wished they had your job.
But before you think of pointing the finger or condemning another - Remember that not one of us are without sin and we all answer to one maker.
And when depressing thoughts seem to get you down - Put a smile on your face and be thankful you're alive and still around.
Life is a gift...
Live it...
Enjoy it...
Celebrate it...
And fulfill it.
Coca-Cola
In 1886, John Pemberton, an Atlanta pharmacist and Civil War veteran with a passion for making home-made headache cures, brewed the first batch of Coca-Cola. Pemberton first sold his drink at a nearby soda parlor for five cents a glass, selling an average of nine glasses per day. When Coca-Cola started to become popular in Atlanta, a businessman named Asa Candler bought the beverage from Pemberton and started Coca-Cola on its road to success. Candler began an active and innovative marketing campaign that spurred the wide distribution of Coke. Soon Coca-Cola was being bottled, and with the aid of transportation networks, began to creep across the United States and to foreign countries. During World War II, Coca-Cola strengthened its image with the American public and doubled its presence in international markets. The company continued to grow through the use of new media and distribution technologies, achieving the international status that it has today ("Timeline").
Why did Coca-Cola succeed? Part of the answer can be found by examining Coca-Cola in the context of technological systems, a collection of related technologies and institutions. Coca-Cola set out on its path to success by exploiting preexisting technological systems and by creating its own systems to develop and spread Coke.
Patent Medicines on Tap
The early history of Coca-Cola provides a look into how the company interacted with the technological systems of its day. In 1886, Coca-Cola began as a competitor in the patent medicine market. After the Civil War, America rapidly shifted from an agrarian society to a more urban and industrialized society. This period was known as “the Gilded Age”, and one of its features was the patent medicine industry. Patent medicines were home-brewed medicines, popular due to a hit-or-miss medical profession, the desire of large numbers of Civil War Veterans for self-doses of medicine, and neurosis from rapidly changing lifestyles. Patent medicines featured flamboyant names and advertising, such as “Dr. Pierce’s Pleasant Purgative Pellets”, “Botanic Blood Balm”, and “Copeland’s Cholera Cure.” Outrageous promises were made regarding the effects of these medicines. Coke was no different from other patent medicines. One 1885 advertisement for Coca-Cola read as follows:
Another early venue for Coca-Cola was the soda parlor. During the Gilded Age, soda parlors were ornate beverage bars where customers could buy their favorite soft drinks of the day. They offered as many as 300 different types of beverage syrups, which would be mixed with carbonated water by the “Soda Jerks” behind the counter. One of the selling points of Coca-Cola was that it was more easily prepared than other carbonated beverages, allowing the parlors to serve more customers. Competition in the fountain beverage market was fierce. Coca-Cola grew to prominence by gaining a strong base in the system of soda parlors (Pendergrast 16).
Coca-Motion
Transportation was a large part of the Coca-Cola technological system. As transportation technology improved, Coca-Cola extended its domain further into the world. At first, mule-drawn wagons distributed bottled Coke. Coca-Cola designed its bottling region to be about fifty miles across, because that was the distance that a mule and wagon could cross in a day. Railroad stops were already major transportation hubs. Coca-Cola hired railway employees as commissioned salesmen to sell cases of bottled Coke at railway stations and depots. One especially interesting part of the Coca-Cola transportation system was the Josephine, a New Orleans bottler’s motor boat that delivered Coke to the Bayous. With the invention of the truck, Coca-Cola was able to spread out into more outlets, such as fruit stands, bowling alleys, and cigar stores. Coca-Cola continued its rise to greatness through its pioneering use of transportation systems (Cheatham 100).
Message in a Bottle
The bottling industry played an enormous part in the history of Coca-Cola. In 1894, a Vicksburg, Mississippi candy manufacturer named Joe Biedenharn first bottled Coke for sale in rural areas, but it was not until 1899 that the Coca-Cola Company first signed a bottling contract. Asa Candler, head of Coca-Cola at that time, did not believe that bottling would be successful and sold the bottling rights to two enterprising lawyers, Benjamin Thomas and Joseph Whitehead, for a grand sum of one dollar. Thomas and Whitehead set up bottling plants and made agreements with existing bottlers to bottle Coke. Their investment soon proved sound.
Why did Coca-Cola succeed? Part of the answer can be found by examining Coca-Cola in the context of technological systems, a collection of related technologies and institutions. Coca-Cola set out on its path to success by exploiting preexisting technological systems and by creating its own systems to develop and spread Coke.
Patent Medicines on Tap
The early history of Coca-Cola provides a look into how the company interacted with the technological systems of its day. In 1886, Coca-Cola began as a competitor in the patent medicine market. After the Civil War, America rapidly shifted from an agrarian society to a more urban and industrialized society. This period was known as “the Gilded Age”, and one of its features was the patent medicine industry. Patent medicines were home-brewed medicines, popular due to a hit-or-miss medical profession, the desire of large numbers of Civil War Veterans for self-doses of medicine, and neurosis from rapidly changing lifestyles. Patent medicines featured flamboyant names and advertising, such as “Dr. Pierce’s Pleasant Purgative Pellets”, “Botanic Blood Balm”, and “Copeland’s Cholera Cure.” Outrageous promises were made regarding the effects of these medicines. Coke was no different from other patent medicines. One 1885 advertisement for Coca-Cola read as follows:
Another early venue for Coca-Cola was the soda parlor. During the Gilded Age, soda parlors were ornate beverage bars where customers could buy their favorite soft drinks of the day. They offered as many as 300 different types of beverage syrups, which would be mixed with carbonated water by the “Soda Jerks” behind the counter. One of the selling points of Coca-Cola was that it was more easily prepared than other carbonated beverages, allowing the parlors to serve more customers. Competition in the fountain beverage market was fierce. Coca-Cola grew to prominence by gaining a strong base in the system of soda parlors (Pendergrast 16).
Coca-Motion
Transportation was a large part of the Coca-Cola technological system. As transportation technology improved, Coca-Cola extended its domain further into the world. At first, mule-drawn wagons distributed bottled Coke. Coca-Cola designed its bottling region to be about fifty miles across, because that was the distance that a mule and wagon could cross in a day. Railroad stops were already major transportation hubs. Coca-Cola hired railway employees as commissioned salesmen to sell cases of bottled Coke at railway stations and depots. One especially interesting part of the Coca-Cola transportation system was the Josephine, a New Orleans bottler’s motor boat that delivered Coke to the Bayous. With the invention of the truck, Coca-Cola was able to spread out into more outlets, such as fruit stands, bowling alleys, and cigar stores. Coca-Cola continued its rise to greatness through its pioneering use of transportation systems (Cheatham 100).
Message in a Bottle
The bottling industry played an enormous part in the history of Coca-Cola. In 1894, a Vicksburg, Mississippi candy manufacturer named Joe Biedenharn first bottled Coke for sale in rural areas, but it was not until 1899 that the Coca-Cola Company first signed a bottling contract. Asa Candler, head of Coca-Cola at that time, did not believe that bottling would be successful and sold the bottling rights to two enterprising lawyers, Benjamin Thomas and Joseph Whitehead, for a grand sum of one dollar. Thomas and Whitehead set up bottling plants and made agreements with existing bottlers to bottle Coke. Their investment soon proved sound.
Democratic Donkey
January 15, 1870
First appearance of the Democratic donkey
On January 14, 1870, the first recorded use of a donkey to represent the Democratic Party appears in Harper's Weekly. Drawn by political illustrator Thomas Nast, the cartoon is entitled "A Live Jackass Kicking a Dead Lion." The jackass (donkey) is tagged "Copperhead Papers," referring to the Democrat-dominated newspapers of the South, and the dead lion represents the late Edwin McMasters Stanton, President Abraham Lincoln's secretary of war during the final three years of the Civil War. In the background is an eagle perched on a rock, representing the postwar federal domination in the South, and in the far background is the U.S. Capitol.
Four years later, Nash originated the use of an elephant to symbolize the Republican Party in a Harper's Weekly cartoon entitled "The Third-Term Panic." The cartoon referred to the disparaging response by The New York Herald to the possibility that Republican President Ulysses S. Grant might seek a third-term. The New York Herald is depicted as a donkey wearing lion's skin labeled "Caesarism." This bogus lion is frightening several timid animals identified with the names of opposing newspapers, such as The New York Times and The New York Tribune, while a berserk elephant, labeled "Republican vote," is tottering above a chasm labeled "Chaos" as it tosses to the right and the left the few remaining platform planks holding its weight. The caption of the cartoon reads: "An Ass having put on the Lion's skin, roamed about the Forest, and amused himself by frightening all the foolish Animals he met with in his wanderings."
First appearance of the Democratic donkey
On January 14, 1870, the first recorded use of a donkey to represent the Democratic Party appears in Harper's Weekly. Drawn by political illustrator Thomas Nast, the cartoon is entitled "A Live Jackass Kicking a Dead Lion." The jackass (donkey) is tagged "Copperhead Papers," referring to the Democrat-dominated newspapers of the South, and the dead lion represents the late Edwin McMasters Stanton, President Abraham Lincoln's secretary of war during the final three years of the Civil War. In the background is an eagle perched on a rock, representing the postwar federal domination in the South, and in the far background is the U.S. Capitol.
Four years later, Nash originated the use of an elephant to symbolize the Republican Party in a Harper's Weekly cartoon entitled "The Third-Term Panic." The cartoon referred to the disparaging response by The New York Herald to the possibility that Republican President Ulysses S. Grant might seek a third-term. The New York Herald is depicted as a donkey wearing lion's skin labeled "Caesarism." This bogus lion is frightening several timid animals identified with the names of opposing newspapers, such as The New York Times and The New York Tribune, while a berserk elephant, labeled "Republican vote," is tottering above a chasm labeled "Chaos" as it tosses to the right and the left the few remaining platform planks holding its weight. The caption of the cartoon reads: "An Ass having put on the Lion's skin, roamed about the Forest, and amused himself by frightening all the foolish Animals he met with in his wanderings."
Western Union and A&P
January 19, 1881
Western Union snaps up Atlantic and Pacific Co.
In 1881 Jay Gould, the ravenous financier and archetypal robber baron, used his wiles and ways to seize control of Western Union, William Vanderbilt's mighty telegraph company. Gould mounted an elaborate campaign to drive down the company's stock, using his newspaper, as well as his influence on Wall Street, to raise doubts about Western Union's leadership and hefty stock price. He also started a rival telegraph concern, the Atlantic and Pacific Company, in hopes of raising doubts about Western UnionÝs dominance over the industry. The gambits worked and Western Union's stock swooned. In a desperate attempt to staunch the bleeding, Western Union snapped up the Atlantic and Pacific Company on this day in 1881. Far from staving off the competition, the deal further fattened Gould's pocketbook and, more importantly, primed him for the final phase of his takeover scheme. Gould convinced his Wall Street associates to start another raid on Western Union. However, as the traders were busy driving down Western UnionÝs asking price, Gould, in the guise of an "anonymous" investor, started gobbling up the companyÝs suddenly cheap stock. When the dust settled, GouldÝs cronies were left counting their losses; meanwhile, the devious financier had successfully wrested control of Western Union.
Western Union snaps up Atlantic and Pacific Co.
In 1881 Jay Gould, the ravenous financier and archetypal robber baron, used his wiles and ways to seize control of Western Union, William Vanderbilt's mighty telegraph company. Gould mounted an elaborate campaign to drive down the company's stock, using his newspaper, as well as his influence on Wall Street, to raise doubts about Western Union's leadership and hefty stock price. He also started a rival telegraph concern, the Atlantic and Pacific Company, in hopes of raising doubts about Western UnionÝs dominance over the industry. The gambits worked and Western Union's stock swooned. In a desperate attempt to staunch the bleeding, Western Union snapped up the Atlantic and Pacific Company on this day in 1881. Far from staving off the competition, the deal further fattened Gould's pocketbook and, more importantly, primed him for the final phase of his takeover scheme. Gould convinced his Wall Street associates to start another raid on Western Union. However, as the traders were busy driving down Western UnionÝs asking price, Gould, in the guise of an "anonymous" investor, started gobbling up the companyÝs suddenly cheap stock. When the dust settled, GouldÝs cronies were left counting their losses; meanwhile, the devious financier had successfully wrested control of Western Union.
Cheyenne
January 22, 1879
Chief Dull Knife makes last fight for freedom
On this day, pursuing American soldiers badly beat Cheyenne Chief Dull Knife and his people as they make a desperate bid for freedom. In doing so, the soldiers effectively crushed the so-called Dull Knife Outbreak.
A leading chief of the Northern Cheyenne, Dull Knife (sometimes called Morning Star) had long urged peace with the powerful Anglo-Americans invading his homeland in the Powder River country of modern-day Wyoming and Montana. However, the 1864 massacre of more than 200 peaceful Cheyenne Indians by Colorado militiamen at Sand Creek, Colorado, led Dull Knife to question whether the Anglo-Americans could ever be trusted. He reluctantly led his people into a war he suspected they could never win. In 1876, many of Dull Knife's people fought along side Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull at their victorious battle at Little Bighorn, though the chief himself apparently did not participate.
During the winter after Little Bighorn, Dull Knife and his people camped along the headwaters of the Powder River in Wyoming, where they fell victim to the army's winter campaign for revenge. In November, General Ranald Mackenzie's expeditionary force discovered the village and attacked. Dull Knife lost many of his people, and along with several other Indian leaders, reluctantly surrendered the following spring.
In 1877, the military relocated Dull Knife and his followers far away from their Wyoming homeland to the large Indian Territory on the southern plains (in present-day Kansas and Oklahoma). No longer able to practice their traditional hunts, the band was largely dependent on meager government provisions. Beset by hunger, homesickness, and disease, Dull Knife and his people rebelled after one year. In September 1878, they joined another band to make an epic march back to their Wyoming homeland. Although Dull Knife publicly announced his peaceful intentions, the government regarded the fleeing Indians as renegades, and soldiers from bases scattered throughout the Plains attacked the Indians in an unsuccessful effort to turn them back.
Arriving at Fort Robinson, Nebraska, near their Wyoming homeland, Dull Knife and his people surrendered to the government in the hopes they would be allowed to stay in the territory. To their dismay, administrators instead threatened to hold the band captive at Fort Robinson until they would agree to return south to the Indian Territory. Unwilling to give up when his goal was so close, in early January, Dull Knife led about 100 of his people in one final desperate break for freedom. Soldiers from Fort Robinson chased after the already weak and starving band of men, women, and children, and on January 22, they attacked and killed at least 30 people, including several in the immediate family of Dull Knife.
Badly bloodied, most of the survivors returned to Fort Robinson and accepted their fate. Dull Knife managed to escape, and he eventually found shelter with Chief Red Cloud on the Sioux reservation in Nebraska. Permitted to remain on the reservation, Dull Knife died four years later, deeply bitter towards the Anglo-Americans he had once hoped to live with peacefully. The same year, the government finally allowed the Northern Cheyenne to move to a permanent reservation on the Tongue River in Montana near their traditional homeland. At last, Dull Knife's people had come home, but their great chief had not lived to join them.
Chief Dull Knife makes last fight for freedom
On this day, pursuing American soldiers badly beat Cheyenne Chief Dull Knife and his people as they make a desperate bid for freedom. In doing so, the soldiers effectively crushed the so-called Dull Knife Outbreak.
A leading chief of the Northern Cheyenne, Dull Knife (sometimes called Morning Star) had long urged peace with the powerful Anglo-Americans invading his homeland in the Powder River country of modern-day Wyoming and Montana. However, the 1864 massacre of more than 200 peaceful Cheyenne Indians by Colorado militiamen at Sand Creek, Colorado, led Dull Knife to question whether the Anglo-Americans could ever be trusted. He reluctantly led his people into a war he suspected they could never win. In 1876, many of Dull Knife's people fought along side Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull at their victorious battle at Little Bighorn, though the chief himself apparently did not participate.
During the winter after Little Bighorn, Dull Knife and his people camped along the headwaters of the Powder River in Wyoming, where they fell victim to the army's winter campaign for revenge. In November, General Ranald Mackenzie's expeditionary force discovered the village and attacked. Dull Knife lost many of his people, and along with several other Indian leaders, reluctantly surrendered the following spring.
In 1877, the military relocated Dull Knife and his followers far away from their Wyoming homeland to the large Indian Territory on the southern plains (in present-day Kansas and Oklahoma). No longer able to practice their traditional hunts, the band was largely dependent on meager government provisions. Beset by hunger, homesickness, and disease, Dull Knife and his people rebelled after one year. In September 1878, they joined another band to make an epic march back to their Wyoming homeland. Although Dull Knife publicly announced his peaceful intentions, the government regarded the fleeing Indians as renegades, and soldiers from bases scattered throughout the Plains attacked the Indians in an unsuccessful effort to turn them back.
Arriving at Fort Robinson, Nebraska, near their Wyoming homeland, Dull Knife and his people surrendered to the government in the hopes they would be allowed to stay in the territory. To their dismay, administrators instead threatened to hold the band captive at Fort Robinson until they would agree to return south to the Indian Territory. Unwilling to give up when his goal was so close, in early January, Dull Knife led about 100 of his people in one final desperate break for freedom. Soldiers from Fort Robinson chased after the already weak and starving band of men, women, and children, and on January 22, they attacked and killed at least 30 people, including several in the immediate family of Dull Knife.
Badly bloodied, most of the survivors returned to Fort Robinson and accepted their fate. Dull Knife managed to escape, and he eventually found shelter with Chief Red Cloud on the Sioux reservation in Nebraska. Permitted to remain on the reservation, Dull Knife died four years later, deeply bitter towards the Anglo-Americans he had once hoped to live with peacefully. The same year, the government finally allowed the Northern Cheyenne to move to a permanent reservation on the Tongue River in Montana near their traditional homeland. At last, Dull Knife's people had come home, but their great chief had not lived to join them.
Masacre
January 23, 1870
Soldiers massacre the wrong camp of Indians
Declaring he did not care whether or not it was the rebellious band of Indians he had been searching for, Colonel Eugene Baker orders his men to attack a sleeping camp of peaceful Blackfeet along the Marias River in northern Montana.
The previous fall, Malcolm Clarke, an influential Montana rancher, had accused a Blackfeet warrior named Owl Child of stealing some of his horses; he punished the proud brave with a brutal whipping. In retribution, Owl Child and several allies murdered Clarke and his son at their home near Helena, and then fled north to join a band of rebellious Blackfeet under the leadership of Mountain Chief. Outraged and frightened, Montanans demanded that Owl Child and his followers be punished, and the government responded by ordering the forces garrisoned under Major Eugene Baker at Fort Ellis (near modern-day Bozeman, Montana) to strike back.
Strengthening his cavalry units with two infantry groups from Fort Shaw near Great Falls, Baker led his troops out into sub-zero winter weather and headed north in search of Mountain Chief's band. Soldiers later reported that Baker drank a great deal throughout the march. On January 22, Baker discovered an Indian village along the Marias River, and, postponing his attack until the following morning, spent the evening drinking heavily.
At daybreak on the morning of January 23, 1870, Baker ordered his men to surround the camp in preparation for attack. As the darkness faded, Baker's scout, Joe Kipp, recognized that the painted designs on the buffalo-skin lodges were those of a peaceful band of Blackfeet led by Heavy Runner. Mountain Chief and Owl Child, Kipp quickly realized, must have gotten wind of the approaching soldiers and moved their winter camp elsewhere. Kipp rushed to tell Baker that they had the wrong Indians, but Baker reportedly replied, "That makes no difference, one band or another of them; they are all Piegans [Blackfeet] and we will attack them." Baker then ordered a sergeant to shoot Kipp if he tried to warn the sleeping camp of Blackfeet and gave the command to attack.
Baker's soldiers began blindly firing into the village, catching the peaceful Indians utterly unaware and defenseless. By the time the brutal attack was over, Baker and his men had, by the best estimate, murdered 37 men, 90 women, and 50 children. Knocking down lodges with frightened survivors inside, the soldiers set them on fire, burnt some of the Blackfeet alive, and then burned the band's meager supplies of food for the winter. Baker initially captured about 140 women and children as prisoners to take back to Fort Ellis, but when he discovered many were ill with smallpox, he abandoned them to face the deadly winter without food or shelter.
When word of the Baker Massacre (now known as the Marias Massacre) reached the east, many Americans were outraged. One angry congressman denounced Baker, saying "civilization shudders at horrors like this." Baker's superiors, however, supported his actions, as did the people of Montana, with one journalist calling Baker's critics "namby-pamby, sniffling old maid sentimentalists." Neither Baker nor his men faced a court martial or any other disciplinary actions. However, the public outrage over the massacre did derail the growing movement to transfer control of Indian affairs from the Department of Interior to the War Department--President Ulysses S. Grant decreed that henceforth all Indian agents would be civilians rather than soldiers.
Soldiers massacre the wrong camp of Indians
Declaring he did not care whether or not it was the rebellious band of Indians he had been searching for, Colonel Eugene Baker orders his men to attack a sleeping camp of peaceful Blackfeet along the Marias River in northern Montana.
The previous fall, Malcolm Clarke, an influential Montana rancher, had accused a Blackfeet warrior named Owl Child of stealing some of his horses; he punished the proud brave with a brutal whipping. In retribution, Owl Child and several allies murdered Clarke and his son at their home near Helena, and then fled north to join a band of rebellious Blackfeet under the leadership of Mountain Chief. Outraged and frightened, Montanans demanded that Owl Child and his followers be punished, and the government responded by ordering the forces garrisoned under Major Eugene Baker at Fort Ellis (near modern-day Bozeman, Montana) to strike back.
Strengthening his cavalry units with two infantry groups from Fort Shaw near Great Falls, Baker led his troops out into sub-zero winter weather and headed north in search of Mountain Chief's band. Soldiers later reported that Baker drank a great deal throughout the march. On January 22, Baker discovered an Indian village along the Marias River, and, postponing his attack until the following morning, spent the evening drinking heavily.
At daybreak on the morning of January 23, 1870, Baker ordered his men to surround the camp in preparation for attack. As the darkness faded, Baker's scout, Joe Kipp, recognized that the painted designs on the buffalo-skin lodges were those of a peaceful band of Blackfeet led by Heavy Runner. Mountain Chief and Owl Child, Kipp quickly realized, must have gotten wind of the approaching soldiers and moved their winter camp elsewhere. Kipp rushed to tell Baker that they had the wrong Indians, but Baker reportedly replied, "That makes no difference, one band or another of them; they are all Piegans [Blackfeet] and we will attack them." Baker then ordered a sergeant to shoot Kipp if he tried to warn the sleeping camp of Blackfeet and gave the command to attack.
Baker's soldiers began blindly firing into the village, catching the peaceful Indians utterly unaware and defenseless. By the time the brutal attack was over, Baker and his men had, by the best estimate, murdered 37 men, 90 women, and 50 children. Knocking down lodges with frightened survivors inside, the soldiers set them on fire, burnt some of the Blackfeet alive, and then burned the band's meager supplies of food for the winter. Baker initially captured about 140 women and children as prisoners to take back to Fort Ellis, but when he discovered many were ill with smallpox, he abandoned them to face the deadly winter without food or shelter.
When word of the Baker Massacre (now known as the Marias Massacre) reached the east, many Americans were outraged. One angry congressman denounced Baker, saying "civilization shudders at horrors like this." Baker's superiors, however, supported his actions, as did the people of Montana, with one journalist calling Baker's critics "namby-pamby, sniffling old maid sentimentalists." Neither Baker nor his men faced a court martial or any other disciplinary actions. However, the public outrage over the massacre did derail the growing movement to transfer control of Indian affairs from the Department of Interior to the War Department--President Ulysses S. Grant decreed that henceforth all Indian agents would be civilians rather than soldiers.
Sutter's Creek
January 24, 1848
Gold discovered at Sutter's Creek
A millwright named James Marshall discovers gold along the banks of Sutter's Creek in California, forever changing the course of history in the American West.
A tributary to the South Fork of the American River in the Sacramento Valley east of San Francisco, Sutter's Creek was named for a Swiss immigrant who came to Mexican California in 1839. John Augustus Sutter became a citizen of Mexico and won a grant of nearly 50,000 acres in the lush Sacramento Valley, where he hoped to create a thriving colony. He built a sturdy fort that became the center of his first town, New Helvetia, and purchased farming implements, livestock, and a cannon to defend his tiny empire. Copying the methods of the Spanish missions, Sutter induced the local Indians to do all the work on his farms and ranches, often treating them as little more than slaves. Workers who dared leave his empire without permission were often brought back by armed posses to face brutal whippings or even execution.
In the 1840s, Sutter's Fort became the first stopping-off point for overland Anglo-American emigrants coming to California to build farms and ranches. Though sworn to protect the Mexican province from falling under the control of the growing number of Americans, Sutter recognized that his future wealth and influence lay with these Anglo settlers. With the outbreak of the Mexican War in 1846, he threw his support to the Americans, who emerged victorious in the fall of 1847.
With the war over and California securely in the hands of the United States, Sutter hired the millwright James Marshall to build a sawmill along the South Fork of the American River in January 1848. In order to redirect the flow of water to the mill's waterwheel, Marshall supervised the excavation of a shallow millrace. On the morning of January 24, 1848, Marshall was looking over the freshly cut millrace when a sparkle of light in the dark earth caught his eye. Looking more closely, Marshall found that much of the millrace was speckled with what appeared to be small flakes of gold, and he rushed to tell Sutter. After an assayer confirmed that the flakes were indeed gold, Sutter quietly set about gathering up as much of the gold as he could, hoping to keep the discovery a secret. However, word soon leaked out and, within months, the largest gold rush in the world had begun.
Ironically, the California gold rush was a disaster for Sutter. Though it brought thousands of men to California, the prospectors had no interest in joining Sutter's despotic agricultural community. Instead, they overran Sutter's property, slaughtered his herds for food, and trampled his fields. By 1852, New Helvetia was ruined, and Sutter was nearly wiped out. Until his death in 1880, he spent his time unsuccessfully petitioning the government to compensate him for the losses he suffered as a result of the gold rush he unintentionally ignited.
Gold discovered at Sutter's Creek
A millwright named James Marshall discovers gold along the banks of Sutter's Creek in California, forever changing the course of history in the American West.
A tributary to the South Fork of the American River in the Sacramento Valley east of San Francisco, Sutter's Creek was named for a Swiss immigrant who came to Mexican California in 1839. John Augustus Sutter became a citizen of Mexico and won a grant of nearly 50,000 acres in the lush Sacramento Valley, where he hoped to create a thriving colony. He built a sturdy fort that became the center of his first town, New Helvetia, and purchased farming implements, livestock, and a cannon to defend his tiny empire. Copying the methods of the Spanish missions, Sutter induced the local Indians to do all the work on his farms and ranches, often treating them as little more than slaves. Workers who dared leave his empire without permission were often brought back by armed posses to face brutal whippings or even execution.
In the 1840s, Sutter's Fort became the first stopping-off point for overland Anglo-American emigrants coming to California to build farms and ranches. Though sworn to protect the Mexican province from falling under the control of the growing number of Americans, Sutter recognized that his future wealth and influence lay with these Anglo settlers. With the outbreak of the Mexican War in 1846, he threw his support to the Americans, who emerged victorious in the fall of 1847.
With the war over and California securely in the hands of the United States, Sutter hired the millwright James Marshall to build a sawmill along the South Fork of the American River in January 1848. In order to redirect the flow of water to the mill's waterwheel, Marshall supervised the excavation of a shallow millrace. On the morning of January 24, 1848, Marshall was looking over the freshly cut millrace when a sparkle of light in the dark earth caught his eye. Looking more closely, Marshall found that much of the millrace was speckled with what appeared to be small flakes of gold, and he rushed to tell Sutter. After an assayer confirmed that the flakes were indeed gold, Sutter quietly set about gathering up as much of the gold as he could, hoping to keep the discovery a secret. However, word soon leaked out and, within months, the largest gold rush in the world had begun.
Ironically, the California gold rush was a disaster for Sutter. Though it brought thousands of men to California, the prospectors had no interest in joining Sutter's despotic agricultural community. Instead, they overran Sutter's property, slaughtered his herds for food, and trampled his fields. By 1852, New Helvetia was ruined, and Sutter was nearly wiped out. Until his death in 1880, he spent his time unsuccessfully petitioning the government to compensate him for the losses he suffered as a result of the gold rush he unintentionally ignited.
UMW
January 25, 1890
United Mine Workers of America founded
On this day, a fleet of workers whose jobs were spread throughout the massive coal industry banded together to form the United Mine Workers of America (UMWA). The UMWA rapidly became one of America's most potent, and at times most troubled, labor organizations. In its earliest incarnation, the coal union was a close affiliate of Samuel GompersÝs America Federation of Labor (A.F. of L.). The partnership not only helped legitimize the UMWA, but also shaped its politics, as GompersÝs A.F. of L. placed its conservative stamp on the new coal union. However, by 1935, UMWA chief John L. Lewis had grown disenchanted with the A.F. of L. and in the same year, Lewis and the UMWA joined forces with seven other unions to form the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO). The partnership didnÝt last long, at least for the coal workers: in 1942, the UMWA pulled up its stakes and withdrew from the CIO. On its own, the UMWA often fell prey to the anti-union tendencies of the federal government: in 1946 and 1948, Lewis and his union were found guilty of criminal contempt for failing to avert coal strikes. The UMWA persevered through the 1950s, but Lewis's retirement in 1960 badly rattled the union. By the late 1960s, the UMWA was riddled with corruption and internal struggles. The UMWA seemingly hit bottom in 1970, when reform minded president Joseph A. Yablonski, as well as his wife and daughter, were found murdered. However, a few years later, the situation turned even uglier when W.A. (Tony) Boyle, who had preceded Yablonski as the union's chief, was convicted of ordering the murders. The chaos continued until Richard Trumka's rise to the presidency in 1982: he cleansed some of the corruption and brought a modicum of stability back to the organization. In 1989, the UMWA ended its long stint as a lone wolf and joined forces with the AFL-CIO.
United Mine Workers of America founded
On this day, a fleet of workers whose jobs were spread throughout the massive coal industry banded together to form the United Mine Workers of America (UMWA). The UMWA rapidly became one of America's most potent, and at times most troubled, labor organizations. In its earliest incarnation, the coal union was a close affiliate of Samuel GompersÝs America Federation of Labor (A.F. of L.). The partnership not only helped legitimize the UMWA, but also shaped its politics, as GompersÝs A.F. of L. placed its conservative stamp on the new coal union. However, by 1935, UMWA chief John L. Lewis had grown disenchanted with the A.F. of L. and in the same year, Lewis and the UMWA joined forces with seven other unions to form the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO). The partnership didnÝt last long, at least for the coal workers: in 1942, the UMWA pulled up its stakes and withdrew from the CIO. On its own, the UMWA often fell prey to the anti-union tendencies of the federal government: in 1946 and 1948, Lewis and his union were found guilty of criminal contempt for failing to avert coal strikes. The UMWA persevered through the 1950s, but Lewis's retirement in 1960 badly rattled the union. By the late 1960s, the UMWA was riddled with corruption and internal struggles. The UMWA seemingly hit bottom in 1970, when reform minded president Joseph A. Yablonski, as well as his wife and daughter, were found murdered. However, a few years later, the situation turned even uglier when W.A. (Tony) Boyle, who had preceded Yablonski as the union's chief, was convicted of ordering the murders. The chaos continued until Richard Trumka's rise to the presidency in 1982: he cleansed some of the corruption and brought a modicum of stability back to the organization. In 1989, the UMWA ended its long stint as a lone wolf and joined forces with the AFL-CIO.
Pat Garrett
January 25, 1869
Pat Garrett leaves Louisiana
Pat Garrett, both celebrated and despised as the man who killed Billy the Kid, abandons a life of luxury in Louisiana and heads west.
Born into a wealthy southern farming family in 1850, Patrick Floyd Garrett grew up in a world of privilege on a large Louisiana plantation. When his parents died after the Civil War, a bitter estate feud erupted among the children, and Garrett received almost nothing. Like many other rootless post-war Southerners, Garrett decided to try his luck in the promised land of the West, and in 1869, he left Louisiana for Texas, where he worked for several years as a cowboy and buffalo hunter.
After 10 years of drifting around Texas, in 1879 Garrett finally settled in Lincoln County, New Mexico, where he won election as sheriff the following year. A new sheriff could hardly have faced a more difficult time to try keeping the peace. Lincoln County was in the final days of a war between two powerful groups of ranchers and businessmen, both of which had hired former cowboys to become illegal soldiers and assassins. Although the war itself was winding down, some of these hired gunmen continued their crime sprees, including a young killer named Billy the Kid, who became Garrett's public enemy number one.
Following a failed attempt to ambush the Kid near Fort Sumner in December 1880, Garrett tracked him to a stone cabin near Stinking Springs, New Mexico, where he finally arrested the young gunslinger. A Lincoln County jury quickly found the Kid guilty of murder and sentenced him to hang, but while Garrett was out of town on April 28, 1881, Billy the Kid managed to kill two of his guards and escape.
Garrett renewed the manhunt, and learned that the Kid was still foolishly hanging around Fort Sumner in order to be near his girlfriend. On the night of July 14, Garrett unexpectedly encountered the Kid in a darkened room and shot him dead without warning. When news of Billy the Kid's death came out, some attacked Garrett for having violated the informal "code of the West," arguing the sheriff should have given the Kid a fair chance to defend himself. Garrett responded that he had merely done what was necessary to bring a vicious killer to justice, later writing, "I, at no time, contemplated taking any chances [with Billy the Kid] which I could avoid with caution or cunning."
With Billy the Kid dead and the war all but over, Garrett turned to quieter pursuits. His 1882 ghost-written book, The Authentic Life of Billy the Kid, was not very authentic but it won Garrett enduring fame and cemented Billy the Kid's place in the pantheon of legendary western gunslingers. After several more stints as a sheriff and an unsuccessful attempt at horse ranching, Garret was shot to death by a disgruntled business associate in 1908.
Pat Garrett leaves Louisiana
Pat Garrett, both celebrated and despised as the man who killed Billy the Kid, abandons a life of luxury in Louisiana and heads west.
Born into a wealthy southern farming family in 1850, Patrick Floyd Garrett grew up in a world of privilege on a large Louisiana plantation. When his parents died after the Civil War, a bitter estate feud erupted among the children, and Garrett received almost nothing. Like many other rootless post-war Southerners, Garrett decided to try his luck in the promised land of the West, and in 1869, he left Louisiana for Texas, where he worked for several years as a cowboy and buffalo hunter.
After 10 years of drifting around Texas, in 1879 Garrett finally settled in Lincoln County, New Mexico, where he won election as sheriff the following year. A new sheriff could hardly have faced a more difficult time to try keeping the peace. Lincoln County was in the final days of a war between two powerful groups of ranchers and businessmen, both of which had hired former cowboys to become illegal soldiers and assassins. Although the war itself was winding down, some of these hired gunmen continued their crime sprees, including a young killer named Billy the Kid, who became Garrett's public enemy number one.
Following a failed attempt to ambush the Kid near Fort Sumner in December 1880, Garrett tracked him to a stone cabin near Stinking Springs, New Mexico, where he finally arrested the young gunslinger. A Lincoln County jury quickly found the Kid guilty of murder and sentenced him to hang, but while Garrett was out of town on April 28, 1881, Billy the Kid managed to kill two of his guards and escape.
Garrett renewed the manhunt, and learned that the Kid was still foolishly hanging around Fort Sumner in order to be near his girlfriend. On the night of July 14, Garrett unexpectedly encountered the Kid in a darkened room and shot him dead without warning. When news of Billy the Kid's death came out, some attacked Garrett for having violated the informal "code of the West," arguing the sheriff should have given the Kid a fair chance to defend himself. Garrett responded that he had merely done what was necessary to bring a vicious killer to justice, later writing, "I, at no time, contemplated taking any chances [with Billy the Kid] which I could avoid with caution or cunning."
With Billy the Kid dead and the war all but over, Garrett turned to quieter pursuits. His 1882 ghost-written book, The Authentic Life of Billy the Kid, was not very authentic but it won Garrett enduring fame and cemented Billy the Kid's place in the pantheon of legendary western gunslingers. After several more stints as a sheriff and an unsuccessful attempt at horse ranching, Garret was shot to death by a disgruntled business associate in 1908.
Pinkertons
January 26, 1875
Pinkertons maim Frank and Jesse James' mother
Mistakenly believing Frank and Jesse James are hiding out at their family home, a gang of men--likely led by Pinkerton detectives--mount a raid that leaves the outlaws' mother permanently maimed and their nine-year-old half-brother dead.
The Chicago-based Pinkerton Detective Agency had been pursuing the James brothers and their gang since 1874, when several big railroad companies first hired the Pinkertons to stop the outlaws. Responsible for a string of bank and train robberies, the James brothers were already famous for their daring style, and some even viewed the men as modern-day Robin Hoods. The Pinkertons, though, had no such romantic illusions about the outlaws. One of their best operatives working on the case, John W. Witcher, had been found dead from a bullet wound to the stomach, with his head, shoulder, and face eaten away by wild hogs. The Pinkertons were convinced Jesse James and another gang member had murdered Witcher, and they were determined to stop the outlaws.
In late 1874, the Pinkertons learned that Jesse and Frank James periodically returned to their old family farm in Clay County, Missouri, to visit with their mother and other family. On the night of January 26, 1875, a gang of men surrounded the James farm in the mistaken belief that the James brothers were inside. In an attempt to flush the outlaws out of the house, the gang threw several flares through the windows. Unexpectedly, one of the flares exploded instantly, killing Frank and Jesse's young half-brother and blowing away their mother's arm. Though the identity of the gang members has never been determined with absolute certainty, contemporary admirers of the James Brothers and modern-day historians agree that the Pinkertons were probably responsible. Regardless, the incident gave credence to the popular view that the men were innocent victims of the powerful railroads that had hired the Pinkertons to wipe them out.
After the attack on the James farm, the Pinkertons appear to have backed off from their more aggressive tactics. One of his own gang members, not a Pinkerton operative, killed Jesse James for a bounty in 1882. Frank James surrendered shortly thereafter, but no jury would convict him, and he remained a free and law-abiding citizen until his death in 1915. The grave of Jesse, who was buried in the front yard of his mother's farm, became a popular tourist attraction. For many years, tourists could pay Mrs. James to visit the grave and listen to her tearful and melodramatic account of how venal Pinkertons and evil railroad barons had so unjustly persecuted her good and utterly innocent sons.
Pinkertons maim Frank and Jesse James' mother
Mistakenly believing Frank and Jesse James are hiding out at their family home, a gang of men--likely led by Pinkerton detectives--mount a raid that leaves the outlaws' mother permanently maimed and their nine-year-old half-brother dead.
The Chicago-based Pinkerton Detective Agency had been pursuing the James brothers and their gang since 1874, when several big railroad companies first hired the Pinkertons to stop the outlaws. Responsible for a string of bank and train robberies, the James brothers were already famous for their daring style, and some even viewed the men as modern-day Robin Hoods. The Pinkertons, though, had no such romantic illusions about the outlaws. One of their best operatives working on the case, John W. Witcher, had been found dead from a bullet wound to the stomach, with his head, shoulder, and face eaten away by wild hogs. The Pinkertons were convinced Jesse James and another gang member had murdered Witcher, and they were determined to stop the outlaws.
In late 1874, the Pinkertons learned that Jesse and Frank James periodically returned to their old family farm in Clay County, Missouri, to visit with their mother and other family. On the night of January 26, 1875, a gang of men surrounded the James farm in the mistaken belief that the James brothers were inside. In an attempt to flush the outlaws out of the house, the gang threw several flares through the windows. Unexpectedly, one of the flares exploded instantly, killing Frank and Jesse's young half-brother and blowing away their mother's arm. Though the identity of the gang members has never been determined with absolute certainty, contemporary admirers of the James Brothers and modern-day historians agree that the Pinkertons were probably responsible. Regardless, the incident gave credence to the popular view that the men were innocent victims of the powerful railroads that had hired the Pinkertons to wipe them out.
After the attack on the James farm, the Pinkertons appear to have backed off from their more aggressive tactics. One of his own gang members, not a Pinkerton operative, killed Jesse James for a bounty in 1882. Frank James surrendered shortly thereafter, but no jury would convict him, and he remained a free and law-abiding citizen until his death in 1915. The grave of Jesse, who was buried in the front yard of his mother's farm, became a popular tourist attraction. For many years, tourists could pay Mrs. James to visit the grave and listen to her tearful and melodramatic account of how venal Pinkertons and evil railroad barons had so unjustly persecuted her good and utterly innocent sons.
National Geographic Society
January 27: General Interest
1888 : National Geographic Society founded
On January 27, 1888, the National Geographic Society is founded in
Washington, D.C., for "the increase and diffusion of geographical
knowledge."
The 33 men who originally met and formed the National Geographic
Society were a diverse group of geographers, explorers, teachers,
lawyers, cartographers, military officers and financiers. All shared
an interest in scientific and geographical knowledge, as well as an
opinion that in a time of discovery, invention, change and mass
communication, Americans were becoming more curious about the world
around them. With this in mind, the men drafted a constitution and
elected as the Society's president a lawyer and philanthropist named
Gardiner Greene Hubbard. Neither a scientist nor a geographer, Hubbard
represented the Society's desire to reach out to the layman.
Nine months after its inception, the Society published its first issue
of National Geographic magazine. Readership did not grow, however,
until Gilbert H. Grosvenor took over as editor in 1899. In only a few
years, Grosvenor boosted circulation from 1,000 to 2 million by
discarding the magazine's format of short, overly technical articles
for articles of general interest accompanied by photographs. National
Geographic quickly became known for its stunning and pioneering
photography, being the first to print natural-color photos of sky, sea
and the North and South Poles.
The Society used its revenues from the magazine to sponsor expeditions
and research projects that furthered humanity's understanding of
natural phenomena. In this role, the National Geographic Society has
been instrumental in making possible some of the great achievements in
exploration and science. To date, it has given out more than 1,400
grants, funding that helped Robert Peary journey to the North Pole,
Richard Byrd fly over the South Pole, Jacques Cousteau delve into the
sea and Jane Goodall observe wild chimpanzees, among many other
projects.
Today, the National Geographic Society is one of the world's largest
non-profit scientific and educational institutions. National
Geographic continues to sell as a glossy monthly, with a circulation
of around 9 million. The Society also sees itself as a guardian of the
planet's natural resources, and in this capacity, focuses on ways to
broaden its reach and educate its readers about the unique
relationship that humans have with the earth.
1888 : National Geographic Society founded
On January 27, 1888, the National Geographic Society is founded in
Washington, D.C., for "the increase and diffusion of geographical
knowledge."
The 33 men who originally met and formed the National Geographic
Society were a diverse group of geographers, explorers, teachers,
lawyers, cartographers, military officers and financiers. All shared
an interest in scientific and geographical knowledge, as well as an
opinion that in a time of discovery, invention, change and mass
communication, Americans were becoming more curious about the world
around them. With this in mind, the men drafted a constitution and
elected as the Society's president a lawyer and philanthropist named
Gardiner Greene Hubbard. Neither a scientist nor a geographer, Hubbard
represented the Society's desire to reach out to the layman.
Nine months after its inception, the Society published its first issue
of National Geographic magazine. Readership did not grow, however,
until Gilbert H. Grosvenor took over as editor in 1899. In only a few
years, Grosvenor boosted circulation from 1,000 to 2 million by
discarding the magazine's format of short, overly technical articles
for articles of general interest accompanied by photographs. National
Geographic quickly became known for its stunning and pioneering
photography, being the first to print natural-color photos of sky, sea
and the North and South Poles.
The Society used its revenues from the magazine to sponsor expeditions
and research projects that furthered humanity's understanding of
natural phenomena. In this role, the National Geographic Society has
been instrumental in making possible some of the great achievements in
exploration and science. To date, it has given out more than 1,400
grants, funding that helped Robert Peary journey to the North Pole,
Richard Byrd fly over the South Pole, Jacques Cousteau delve into the
sea and Jane Goodall observe wild chimpanzees, among many other
projects.
Today, the National Geographic Society is one of the world's largest
non-profit scientific and educational institutions. National
Geographic continues to sell as a glossy monthly, with a circulation
of around 9 million. The Society also sees itself as a guardian of the
planet's natural resources, and in this capacity, focuses on ways to
broaden its reach and educate its readers about the unique
relationship that humans have with the earth.
Mormons
February 1, 1885
Mormon president goes underground
John Taylor, the president of the Mormon Church, goes "underground" to avoid arrest and continue resisting federal demands for reforms within the community of Latter-day Saints.
A former Methodist minister, Taylor converted to Mormonism in 1836, not long after Joseph Smith founded the religion in New York. Taylor quickly became one of Smith's closest confidants and supporters, and he remained loyal to the controversial prophet and his church through years of persecution. When Smith was assassinated in Illinois in 1844 by an angry mob, Taylor was by his side and suffered several wounds during the attack. He escaped serious injury because a heavy pocket watch stopped a potentially fatal bullet.
After Smith's death, Taylor became an equally loyal follower of the new church president, Brigham Young. Taylor led one group of Mormon emigrants westward to Salt Lake City where Young was building a thriving theocratic empire. In Utah, he continued to ascend in the church hierarchy, and when Young died in 1877, Taylor took over leadership of the church.
Taylor's tenure as the leader of the Latter-day Saints was marked by growing tensions between the church and the federal government. The Mormon practice of polygamy became a lightning rod for federal criticism, yet this issue reflected a larger struggle regarding the church's power over its members and the future state of Utah. Although the Mormons treasured the freedom to develop their new society free from outside interference, they also sought the benefits of being a part of the United States. Inevitably, these two goals conflicted. In 1851, the Mormons won territorial status for Utah, but the government remained suspicious of Taylor's theocratic society. To the federal government, the Mormon political and economic domination of the region violated the separation of church and state. By attacking polygamy, federal authorities hoped they could also undermine the secular power of the church.
Taylor strongly opposed the federal attempts to undermine the Mormon theocracy. He believed the practice of polygamy was divinely ordained and state or federal anti-polygamy laws should not be allowed to prevail. Determined to assert the primacy of national secular law over the Mormon theocracy, U.S. marshals began arresting Mormons for practicing polygamy. Vulnerable to arrest themselves, Taylor and his leading administrators went underground on February 1, 1885. For the next two-and-a-half years, Taylor conducted church business from a series of secret hideouts in Salt Lake City.
Taylor's underground administration managed to avoid arrest, but the federal actions were steadily undermining church power and influence. Grudgingly, in 1887, Taylor assented to one concession: making polygamy illegal in a proposed Utah state constitution. Congress found Taylor's proposed compromise inadequate and rejected the petition for statehood. Taylor died that same year, still an exile in his own home. For several more years, the Mormon leadership continued the fight, but federal pressure eventually became so great that in 1890 Taylor's successor publicly rejected polygamy. The theocratic government of the Latter-day Saints had been tamed, and Utah achieved statehood in 1896.
Mormon president goes underground
John Taylor, the president of the Mormon Church, goes "underground" to avoid arrest and continue resisting federal demands for reforms within the community of Latter-day Saints.
A former Methodist minister, Taylor converted to Mormonism in 1836, not long after Joseph Smith founded the religion in New York. Taylor quickly became one of Smith's closest confidants and supporters, and he remained loyal to the controversial prophet and his church through years of persecution. When Smith was assassinated in Illinois in 1844 by an angry mob, Taylor was by his side and suffered several wounds during the attack. He escaped serious injury because a heavy pocket watch stopped a potentially fatal bullet.
After Smith's death, Taylor became an equally loyal follower of the new church president, Brigham Young. Taylor led one group of Mormon emigrants westward to Salt Lake City where Young was building a thriving theocratic empire. In Utah, he continued to ascend in the church hierarchy, and when Young died in 1877, Taylor took over leadership of the church.
Taylor's tenure as the leader of the Latter-day Saints was marked by growing tensions between the church and the federal government. The Mormon practice of polygamy became a lightning rod for federal criticism, yet this issue reflected a larger struggle regarding the church's power over its members and the future state of Utah. Although the Mormons treasured the freedom to develop their new society free from outside interference, they also sought the benefits of being a part of the United States. Inevitably, these two goals conflicted. In 1851, the Mormons won territorial status for Utah, but the government remained suspicious of Taylor's theocratic society. To the federal government, the Mormon political and economic domination of the region violated the separation of church and state. By attacking polygamy, federal authorities hoped they could also undermine the secular power of the church.
Taylor strongly opposed the federal attempts to undermine the Mormon theocracy. He believed the practice of polygamy was divinely ordained and state or federal anti-polygamy laws should not be allowed to prevail. Determined to assert the primacy of national secular law over the Mormon theocracy, U.S. marshals began arresting Mormons for practicing polygamy. Vulnerable to arrest themselves, Taylor and his leading administrators went underground on February 1, 1885. For the next two-and-a-half years, Taylor conducted church business from a series of secret hideouts in Salt Lake City.
Taylor's underground administration managed to avoid arrest, but the federal actions were steadily undermining church power and influence. Grudgingly, in 1887, Taylor assented to one concession: making polygamy illegal in a proposed Utah state constitution. Congress found Taylor's proposed compromise inadequate and rejected the petition for statehood. Taylor died that same year, still an exile in his own home. For several more years, the Mormon leadership continued the fight, but federal pressure eventually became so great that in 1890 Taylor's successor publicly rejected polygamy. The theocratic government of the Latter-day Saints had been tamed, and Utah achieved statehood in 1896.
OED
February 1: General Interest
1884 : Oxford Dictionary debuts
On this day in 1884, the first portion, or fascicle, of the Oxford
English Dictionary (OED), considered the most comprehensive and
accurate dictionary of the English language, is published. Today, the
OED is the definitive authority on the meaning, pronunciation and
history of over half a million words, past and present
Plans for the dictionary began in 1857 when members of London's
Philological Society, who believed there were no up-to-date,
error-free English dictionaries available, decided to produce one that
would cover all vocabulary from the Anglo-Saxon period (1150 A.D.) to
the present. Conceived of as a four-volume, 6,400-page work, it was
estimated the project would take 10 years to finish. In fact, it took
over 40 years until the 125th and final fascicle was published in
April 1928 and the full dictionary was complete--at over 400,000 words
and phrases in 10 volumes--and published under the title A New English
Dictionary on Historical Principles.
Unlike most English dictionaries, which only list present-day common
meanings, the OED provides a detailed chronological history for every
word and phrase, citing quotations from a wide range of sources,
including classic literature and cookbooks. The OED is famous for its
lengthy cross-references and etymologies. The verb "set" merits the
OED's longest entry, at approximately 60,000 words and detailing over
430 uses.
No sooner was the OED finished than editors began updating it. A
supplement, containing new entries and revisions, was published in
1933 and the original dictionary was reprinted in 12 volumes and
officially renamed the Oxford English Dictionary.
Between 1972 and 1986, an updated 4-volume supplement was published,
with new terms from the continually evolving English language plus
more words and phrases from North America, Australia, the Caribbean,
New Zealand, South Africa and South Asia.
In 1984, Oxford University Press embarked on a five-year,
multi-million-dollar project to create an electronic version of the
dictionary. The effort required 120 people just to type the pages from
the print edition and 50 proofreaders to check their work. In 1992, a
CD-ROM version of the dictionary was released, making it much easier
to search and retrieve information.
Today, the dictionary's second edition is available online to
subscribers and is updated quarterly with over 1,000 new entries and
revisions. At a whopping 20 volumes weighing over 137 pounds, it would
reportedly take one person 120 years to type all 59 million words in
the OED.
1884 : Oxford Dictionary debuts
On this day in 1884, the first portion, or fascicle, of the Oxford
English Dictionary (OED), considered the most comprehensive and
accurate dictionary of the English language, is published. Today, the
OED is the definitive authority on the meaning, pronunciation and
history of over half a million words, past and present
Plans for the dictionary began in 1857 when members of London's
Philological Society, who believed there were no up-to-date,
error-free English dictionaries available, decided to produce one that
would cover all vocabulary from the Anglo-Saxon period (1150 A.D.) to
the present. Conceived of as a four-volume, 6,400-page work, it was
estimated the project would take 10 years to finish. In fact, it took
over 40 years until the 125th and final fascicle was published in
April 1928 and the full dictionary was complete--at over 400,000 words
and phrases in 10 volumes--and published under the title A New English
Dictionary on Historical Principles.
Unlike most English dictionaries, which only list present-day common
meanings, the OED provides a detailed chronological history for every
word and phrase, citing quotations from a wide range of sources,
including classic literature and cookbooks. The OED is famous for its
lengthy cross-references and etymologies. The verb "set" merits the
OED's longest entry, at approximately 60,000 words and detailing over
430 uses.
No sooner was the OED finished than editors began updating it. A
supplement, containing new entries and revisions, was published in
1933 and the original dictionary was reprinted in 12 volumes and
officially renamed the Oxford English Dictionary.
Between 1972 and 1986, an updated 4-volume supplement was published,
with new terms from the continually evolving English language plus
more words and phrases from North America, Australia, the Caribbean,
New Zealand, South Africa and South Asia.
In 1984, Oxford University Press embarked on a five-year,
multi-million-dollar project to create an electronic version of the
dictionary. The effort required 120 people just to type the pages from
the print edition and 50 proofreaders to check their work. In 1992, a
CD-ROM version of the dictionary was released, making it much easier
to search and retrieve information.
Today, the dictionary's second edition is available online to
subscribers and is updated quarterly with over 1,000 new entries and
revisions. At a whopping 20 volumes weighing over 137 pounds, it would
reportedly take one person 120 years to type all 59 million words in
the OED.
baseball
February 2, 1876
National League of baseball is founded
On February 2, 1876, the National League of Professional Baseball Clubs, which comes to be more commonly known as the National League (NL), is formed. The American League (AL) was established in 1901 and in 1903, the first World Series was held.
The first official game of baseball in the United States took place in June 1846 in Hoboken, New Jersey. In 1869, the Cincinnati Red Stockings became America’s first professional baseball club. In 1871, the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players was established as the sport’s first “major league.” Five years later, in 1876, Chicago businessman William Hulbert formed the National League of Professional Baseball Clubs to replace the National Association, which he believed was mismanaged and corrupt. The National League had eight original members: the Boston Red Stockings (now the Atlanta Braves), Chicago White Stockings (now the Chicago Cubs), Cincinnati Red Stockings, Hartford Dark Blues, Louisville Grays, Mutual of New York, Philadelphia Athletics and the St. Louis Brown Stockings.
In 1901, the National League’s rival, the American League of Professional Baseball Clubs, was founded. Starting in 1903, the best team from each league began competing against each other in the World Series. Various teams switched in and out of the National League over the years, but it remained an eight-team league for many decades until 1962, when the New York Mets and Houston Colt .45s (later renamed the Houston Astros) joined the league. In 1969, two more teams were added: the San Diego Padres and the Montreal Expos (now the Washington Nationals). Also that year, the league was split into an East and West division of six teams each. The Colorado Rockies and Florida Marlins became part of the National League in 1993, followed by the Arizona Diamondbacks in 1998. In 1994, the league was reorganized to include a Central division, along with the East and West groups.
In 1997, Major League Baseball introduced inter-league play, in which each NL team played a series of regular-season games against AL teams of the same division. (In 2002, the rules were changed to allow AL/NL teams from non-corresponding divisions to compete against each other.) However, one major difference between the two leagues remains: the American League’s 1973 adoption of the designated hitter rule allowed teams to substitute another hitter for the pitcher, who generally hit poorly, in the lineup. As a result, teams in the American League typically score more runs than those in the National League, making, some fans argue, for a more exciting game.
Between 1903 and 2007, AL teams were the winners in 61 of the 103 World Series played. The American League’s New York Yankees have won more World Series championships--26--than any other team in baseball.
National League of baseball is founded
On February 2, 1876, the National League of Professional Baseball Clubs, which comes to be more commonly known as the National League (NL), is formed. The American League (AL) was established in 1901 and in 1903, the first World Series was held.
The first official game of baseball in the United States took place in June 1846 in Hoboken, New Jersey. In 1869, the Cincinnati Red Stockings became America’s first professional baseball club. In 1871, the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players was established as the sport’s first “major league.” Five years later, in 1876, Chicago businessman William Hulbert formed the National League of Professional Baseball Clubs to replace the National Association, which he believed was mismanaged and corrupt. The National League had eight original members: the Boston Red Stockings (now the Atlanta Braves), Chicago White Stockings (now the Chicago Cubs), Cincinnati Red Stockings, Hartford Dark Blues, Louisville Grays, Mutual of New York, Philadelphia Athletics and the St. Louis Brown Stockings.
In 1901, the National League’s rival, the American League of Professional Baseball Clubs, was founded. Starting in 1903, the best team from each league began competing against each other in the World Series. Various teams switched in and out of the National League over the years, but it remained an eight-team league for many decades until 1962, when the New York Mets and Houston Colt .45s (later renamed the Houston Astros) joined the league. In 1969, two more teams were added: the San Diego Padres and the Montreal Expos (now the Washington Nationals). Also that year, the league was split into an East and West division of six teams each. The Colorado Rockies and Florida Marlins became part of the National League in 1993, followed by the Arizona Diamondbacks in 1998. In 1994, the league was reorganized to include a Central division, along with the East and West groups.
In 1997, Major League Baseball introduced inter-league play, in which each NL team played a series of regular-season games against AL teams of the same division. (In 2002, the rules were changed to allow AL/NL teams from non-corresponding divisions to compete against each other.) However, one major difference between the two leagues remains: the American League’s 1973 adoption of the designated hitter rule allowed teams to substitute another hitter for the pitcher, who generally hit poorly, in the lineup. As a result, teams in the American League typically score more runs than those in the National League, making, some fans argue, for a more exciting game.
Between 1903 and 2007, AL teams were the winners in 61 of the 103 World Series played. The American League’s New York Yankees have won more World Series championships--26--than any other team in baseball.
a collection of "this day in history"
February 2, 1880
First electric streetlight installed
The first electric streetlight was installed in Wabash, Indiana. The city paid the Brush Electric Light Company of Cleveland, Ohio, $100 to install a light on the top of the courthouse. A month later the city commissioned four more lights to be installed. Residents of Wabash became the first Americans to wear their sunglasses at night.
February 1, 1898
First auto insurance policy is issued
The Travelers Insurance Company of Hartford, Connecticut, extended coverage to an automobile owner, making them the first company to issue an automobile insurance policy to an individual. Dr. Truman J. Martin of Buffalo, New York, paid a premium of $11.25 for the policy that covered $5,000 to $10,000 of liability. In 1925, Massachusetts became the first state to mandate automobile insurance, "requiring owners of certain motor vehicles and trailers to furnish security for their civil liabilities." Today, auto insurance is a fact of life for American drivers as nearly every state requires some insurance for the operator of a motor vehicle. In a country where the driver's license serves as the primary form of identification, the challenge of selecting a coverage policy and paying the car insurance premium has become a rite of passage for many young Americans.
February 1, 1893
First movie studio built
On this day in 1893, Thomas Alva Edison finishes the first movie studio on his property in West Orange, N.J. The studio, a frame cabin covered with black roofing paper, was built on a pivot so it could be turned to face the sunlight throughout the day. Edison spent $638 building the studio, which he called a "revolving photographic building."
January 29, 1886
Benz gets patent
Karl Benz received a patent for his "Motorwagen" on this day. The Motorwagen, a three-wheeled automobile powered by an internal-combustion engine, was the first practical internal-combustion vehicle ever constructed. It made its first test run in early 1885. Benz completed his first four-wheeled motorcar in 1893, and went on to build many successful racing cars. In 1926, his company, Benz and Co., merged with Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft to form Daimler-Benz, an industry giant that has remained a formidable auto maker to the present day.
January 24, 1860
New engine runs on fire, not water
French inventor Etienne Lenoir was issued a patent for the first successful internal-combustion engine. Lenoir's engine was a converted steam engine that burned a mixture of coal gas and air. Its two-stroke action was simple but reliable--many of Lenoir's engines were still working after 20 years of use. His first engines powered simple machines like pumps and bellows. However, in 1862, Lenoir built his first automobile powered by an internal-combustion engine--a vehicle capable of making a six-mile trip in two to three hours. It wasn't a practical vehicle, but it was the beginning of the automobile industry.
January 23, 1849
First woman M.D.
Elizabeth Blackwell is granted a medical degree from Geneva College in New York, becoming the first female to be officially recognized as a physician in U.S. history.
Blackwell, born in Bristol, England, came to the United States in her youth and attended the medical faculty of Geneva College, now known as Hobart College. In 1849, she graduated with the highest grades in her class and was granted an M.D. In 1857, after several years of private practice, she founded the New York Infirmary for Women and Children with her sister, Emily Blackwell, also a doctor. In 1868, the institution was expanded to include a women's college for the training of nurses and doctors, the first of its kind in America. The next year, Blackwell returned to England, where in 1875 she became professor of gynecology at the London School of Medicine for Women, a medical discipline she had helped to establish.
January 20, 1870
First female brokerage firm opens
In 1870, Victoria Woodhull and her sister Tennessee Claflin opened the doors of Woodhull, Claflin & Co., the nation's first brokerage firm run solely by women. The firm, which represented an early victory for equal rights in the often-chauvinistic world of Wall Street, was in part a product of the sisters' friendship with rail baron Cornelius Vanderbilt. All three were fiercely interested in spirituality--as children, Tennessee and Victoria performed psychic demonstrations in a traveling medicine show--and Vanderbilt willingly used his money and influence to help the sisters. The firm proved to be a success, but Victoria and Tennessee's achievements were hardly restricted to Wall Street. In 1870, the sisters established a publication, Woodhull and Claflin's Weekly, which became a pulpit for their ardent beliefs in free love and women's suffrage and also served as the first venue for the English translation of the Communist Manifesto. Though her rejection of the tenets of conventional marriage raised the ire of some suffragettes, Victoria became a leading light in the women's rights movement. In 1872, the Equal Rights Party, a dissident branch of the National Woman Suffrage Association, even nominated Woodhull as their candidate for the president of the nation. Despite her stated aversion to the principles of marriage, Victoria wedded several times; later in life she headed to England and married an affluent British merchant, as did her sister. Tennessee died in 1923, while Victoria passed away a few years later, in 1927.
In 1866, Charles Elmer Hires invented root beer.
Throughout the 1870s and 1880s, the city of government of Cincinnati was known for corruption. Politicians liberally utilized the spoils system, appointing family members, friends, and supporters to city offices. Jury tampering also was purportedly rampant. In March 1884, William Berner was tried for the murder of his employer. The jury found Berner guilty of the lesser charge of manslaughter. Many city residents were outraged, believing that jury tampering had taken place to assure Berner a lighter sentence. In protest of the reduced sentence, prominent Cincinnati residents organized a protest meeting. The meeting quickly evolved into a riot. Locals were infuriated with the political corruption and jury tampering occurring in their city. The rioters, who eventually numbered more than ten thousand people, marched on the courthouse and set it on fire, completely destroying the structure. The building, constructed in 1853, had served as the Hamilton County courthouse for more than thirty years. The riot lasted for three days. It took Ohio National Guard soldiers, some of whom were armed with Gatling guns, to quell the disturbance. Approximately fifty residents died in the riot, and another two hundred were injured. (Image Details -- Interior view of the Court of Common Pleas in the Hamilton County Courthouse after it was damaged by fire, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1884. The fire was started during a riot sparked by public outrage over the outcome of a murder trial.)
January 14, 1875 -- Debate continues over greenbacks -- By 1875, the United States was involved in a roiling debate over greenbacks, the paper currency issued during the Civil War. So-called "soft money" supporters had taken up the cause of the greenback and successfully pushed for the paper notes to stay in circulation following the close of the war. However, "hard money" forces in the House fired back, and on January 14, they engineered the passage of the Specie Resumption Act, a legislative salvo against paper currency. The bill directed the Treasury to begin exchanging legal tender for gold on January 1, 1879; it also mandated that the number of greenbacks in circulation be trimmed down to $300 million. Treasury Secretary John Sherman stocked up on gold and, by the dawn of 1879, the specie exchange program was up and running. But, at the same time, greenbacks had become just as valuable as gold on the exchange market; the public was reluctant to swap their paper currency for coinage and the exchange program turned out to be a flop.
The Chattanooga Police Department in 1884. In the front row, left to right, were French Lawson, First Lieutenant and Assistant Chief W. P. “Dock” Mitchell (a future chief), Chief of Police James A. Allen, Second Lieutenant and Assistant Chief J. P. Kilgore (a future chief), Tom Russell, and “Dasher” Bates. Left to right in the second row were John Shelow, Tom J. Howard, Caleb Smith, Frank Duncan, W. F. Springer, John Usery, and Jenkins. The back row from left to right were an unidentified officer, John Hall, John Hankins, Cicero Rape, and Abe Litz. Uniforms were double breasted with brass buttons and a plain pinched shield breast badge. The wide brim hats had no insignia. Chief of Police James Allen was the first to hold the title Chief of Police. He was appointed to the position on April 13, 1883, and served for twelve years. Allen had previously served as a lieutenant on the force.
In 1958, a hydrogen bomb known as the Tybee Bomb was lost by the US Air Force off the coast of Savannah, Georgia, never to be recovered.
First electric streetlight installed
The first electric streetlight was installed in Wabash, Indiana. The city paid the Brush Electric Light Company of Cleveland, Ohio, $100 to install a light on the top of the courthouse. A month later the city commissioned four more lights to be installed. Residents of Wabash became the first Americans to wear their sunglasses at night.
February 1, 1898
First auto insurance policy is issued
The Travelers Insurance Company of Hartford, Connecticut, extended coverage to an automobile owner, making them the first company to issue an automobile insurance policy to an individual. Dr. Truman J. Martin of Buffalo, New York, paid a premium of $11.25 for the policy that covered $5,000 to $10,000 of liability. In 1925, Massachusetts became the first state to mandate automobile insurance, "requiring owners of certain motor vehicles and trailers to furnish security for their civil liabilities." Today, auto insurance is a fact of life for American drivers as nearly every state requires some insurance for the operator of a motor vehicle. In a country where the driver's license serves as the primary form of identification, the challenge of selecting a coverage policy and paying the car insurance premium has become a rite of passage for many young Americans.
February 1, 1893
First movie studio built
On this day in 1893, Thomas Alva Edison finishes the first movie studio on his property in West Orange, N.J. The studio, a frame cabin covered with black roofing paper, was built on a pivot so it could be turned to face the sunlight throughout the day. Edison spent $638 building the studio, which he called a "revolving photographic building."
January 29, 1886
Benz gets patent
Karl Benz received a patent for his "Motorwagen" on this day. The Motorwagen, a three-wheeled automobile powered by an internal-combustion engine, was the first practical internal-combustion vehicle ever constructed. It made its first test run in early 1885. Benz completed his first four-wheeled motorcar in 1893, and went on to build many successful racing cars. In 1926, his company, Benz and Co., merged with Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft to form Daimler-Benz, an industry giant that has remained a formidable auto maker to the present day.
January 24, 1860
New engine runs on fire, not water
French inventor Etienne Lenoir was issued a patent for the first successful internal-combustion engine. Lenoir's engine was a converted steam engine that burned a mixture of coal gas and air. Its two-stroke action was simple but reliable--many of Lenoir's engines were still working after 20 years of use. His first engines powered simple machines like pumps and bellows. However, in 1862, Lenoir built his first automobile powered by an internal-combustion engine--a vehicle capable of making a six-mile trip in two to three hours. It wasn't a practical vehicle, but it was the beginning of the automobile industry.
January 23, 1849
First woman M.D.
Elizabeth Blackwell is granted a medical degree from Geneva College in New York, becoming the first female to be officially recognized as a physician in U.S. history.
Blackwell, born in Bristol, England, came to the United States in her youth and attended the medical faculty of Geneva College, now known as Hobart College. In 1849, she graduated with the highest grades in her class and was granted an M.D. In 1857, after several years of private practice, she founded the New York Infirmary for Women and Children with her sister, Emily Blackwell, also a doctor. In 1868, the institution was expanded to include a women's college for the training of nurses and doctors, the first of its kind in America. The next year, Blackwell returned to England, where in 1875 she became professor of gynecology at the London School of Medicine for Women, a medical discipline she had helped to establish.
January 20, 1870
First female brokerage firm opens
In 1870, Victoria Woodhull and her sister Tennessee Claflin opened the doors of Woodhull, Claflin & Co., the nation's first brokerage firm run solely by women. The firm, which represented an early victory for equal rights in the often-chauvinistic world of Wall Street, was in part a product of the sisters' friendship with rail baron Cornelius Vanderbilt. All three were fiercely interested in spirituality--as children, Tennessee and Victoria performed psychic demonstrations in a traveling medicine show--and Vanderbilt willingly used his money and influence to help the sisters. The firm proved to be a success, but Victoria and Tennessee's achievements were hardly restricted to Wall Street. In 1870, the sisters established a publication, Woodhull and Claflin's Weekly, which became a pulpit for their ardent beliefs in free love and women's suffrage and also served as the first venue for the English translation of the Communist Manifesto. Though her rejection of the tenets of conventional marriage raised the ire of some suffragettes, Victoria became a leading light in the women's rights movement. In 1872, the Equal Rights Party, a dissident branch of the National Woman Suffrage Association, even nominated Woodhull as their candidate for the president of the nation. Despite her stated aversion to the principles of marriage, Victoria wedded several times; later in life she headed to England and married an affluent British merchant, as did her sister. Tennessee died in 1923, while Victoria passed away a few years later, in 1927.
In 1866, Charles Elmer Hires invented root beer.
Throughout the 1870s and 1880s, the city of government of Cincinnati was known for corruption. Politicians liberally utilized the spoils system, appointing family members, friends, and supporters to city offices. Jury tampering also was purportedly rampant. In March 1884, William Berner was tried for the murder of his employer. The jury found Berner guilty of the lesser charge of manslaughter. Many city residents were outraged, believing that jury tampering had taken place to assure Berner a lighter sentence. In protest of the reduced sentence, prominent Cincinnati residents organized a protest meeting. The meeting quickly evolved into a riot. Locals were infuriated with the political corruption and jury tampering occurring in their city. The rioters, who eventually numbered more than ten thousand people, marched on the courthouse and set it on fire, completely destroying the structure. The building, constructed in 1853, had served as the Hamilton County courthouse for more than thirty years. The riot lasted for three days. It took Ohio National Guard soldiers, some of whom were armed with Gatling guns, to quell the disturbance. Approximately fifty residents died in the riot, and another two hundred were injured. (Image Details -- Interior view of the Court of Common Pleas in the Hamilton County Courthouse after it was damaged by fire, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1884. The fire was started during a riot sparked by public outrage over the outcome of a murder trial.)
January 14, 1875 -- Debate continues over greenbacks -- By 1875, the United States was involved in a roiling debate over greenbacks, the paper currency issued during the Civil War. So-called "soft money" supporters had taken up the cause of the greenback and successfully pushed for the paper notes to stay in circulation following the close of the war. However, "hard money" forces in the House fired back, and on January 14, they engineered the passage of the Specie Resumption Act, a legislative salvo against paper currency. The bill directed the Treasury to begin exchanging legal tender for gold on January 1, 1879; it also mandated that the number of greenbacks in circulation be trimmed down to $300 million. Treasury Secretary John Sherman stocked up on gold and, by the dawn of 1879, the specie exchange program was up and running. But, at the same time, greenbacks had become just as valuable as gold on the exchange market; the public was reluctant to swap their paper currency for coinage and the exchange program turned out to be a flop.
The Chattanooga Police Department in 1884. In the front row, left to right, were French Lawson, First Lieutenant and Assistant Chief W. P. “Dock” Mitchell (a future chief), Chief of Police James A. Allen, Second Lieutenant and Assistant Chief J. P. Kilgore (a future chief), Tom Russell, and “Dasher” Bates. Left to right in the second row were John Shelow, Tom J. Howard, Caleb Smith, Frank Duncan, W. F. Springer, John Usery, and Jenkins. The back row from left to right were an unidentified officer, John Hall, John Hankins, Cicero Rape, and Abe Litz. Uniforms were double breasted with brass buttons and a plain pinched shield breast badge. The wide brim hats had no insignia. Chief of Police James Allen was the first to hold the title Chief of Police. He was appointed to the position on April 13, 1883, and served for twelve years. Allen had previously served as a lieutenant on the force.
In 1958, a hydrogen bomb known as the Tybee Bomb was lost by the US Air Force off the coast of Savannah, Georgia, never to be recovered.
groundhog day
February 2: General Interest
1887 : First Groundhog Day
On this day in 1887, Groundhog Day, featuring a rodent meteorologist,
is celebrated for the first time at Gobbler's Knob in Punxsutawney,
Pennsylvania. According to tradition, if a groundhog comes out of its
hole on this day and sees its shadow, there will be six more weeks of
winter weather; no shadow means an early spring.
Groundhog Day has its roots in the ancient Christian tradition of
Candlemas Day, when clergy would bless and distribute candles needed
for winter. The candles represented how long and cold the winter would
be. Germans expanded on this concept by selecting an animal--the
hedgehog--as a means of predicting weather. Once they came to America,
German settlers in Pennsylvania continued the tradition, although they
switched from hedgehogs to groundhogs, which were plentiful in the
Keystone State.
Groundhogs, also called woodchucks and whose scientific name is
Marmota monax, typically weigh 12 to 15 pounds and live six to eight
years. They eat vegetables and fruits, whistle when they're frightened
or looking for a mate and can climb trees and swim. They go into
hibernation in the late fall; during this time, their body
temperatures drop significantly, their heartbeats slow from 80 to five
beats per minute and they can lose 30 percent of their body fat. In
February, male groundhogs emerge from their burrows to look for a mate
(not to predict the weather) before going underground again. They come
out of hibernation for good in March.
In 1887, a newspaper editor belonging to a group of groundhog hunters
from Punxsutawney called the Punxsutawney Groundhog Club declared that
Phil, the Punxsutawney groundhog, was America's only true
weather-forecasting groundhog. The line of groundhogs that have since
been known as Phil might be America's most famous groundhogs, but
other towns across North America now have their own weather-predicting
rodents, from Birmingham Bill to Staten Island Chuck to Shubenacadie
Sam in Canada.
In 1993, the movie Groundhog Day starring Bill Murray popularized the
usage of "groundhog day" to mean something that is repeated over and
over. Today, tens of thousands of people converge on Gobbler's Knob in
Punxsutawney each February 2 to witness Phil's prediction. The
Punxsutawney Groundhog Club hosts a three-day celebration featuring
entertainment and activities.
1887 : First Groundhog Day
On this day in 1887, Groundhog Day, featuring a rodent meteorologist,
is celebrated for the first time at Gobbler's Knob in Punxsutawney,
Pennsylvania. According to tradition, if a groundhog comes out of its
hole on this day and sees its shadow, there will be six more weeks of
winter weather; no shadow means an early spring.
Groundhog Day has its roots in the ancient Christian tradition of
Candlemas Day, when clergy would bless and distribute candles needed
for winter. The candles represented how long and cold the winter would
be. Germans expanded on this concept by selecting an animal--the
hedgehog--as a means of predicting weather. Once they came to America,
German settlers in Pennsylvania continued the tradition, although they
switched from hedgehogs to groundhogs, which were plentiful in the
Keystone State.
Groundhogs, also called woodchucks and whose scientific name is
Marmota monax, typically weigh 12 to 15 pounds and live six to eight
years. They eat vegetables and fruits, whistle when they're frightened
or looking for a mate and can climb trees and swim. They go into
hibernation in the late fall; during this time, their body
temperatures drop significantly, their heartbeats slow from 80 to five
beats per minute and they can lose 30 percent of their body fat. In
February, male groundhogs emerge from their burrows to look for a mate
(not to predict the weather) before going underground again. They come
out of hibernation for good in March.
In 1887, a newspaper editor belonging to a group of groundhog hunters
from Punxsutawney called the Punxsutawney Groundhog Club declared that
Phil, the Punxsutawney groundhog, was America's only true
weather-forecasting groundhog. The line of groundhogs that have since
been known as Phil might be America's most famous groundhogs, but
other towns across North America now have their own weather-predicting
rodents, from Birmingham Bill to Staten Island Chuck to Shubenacadie
Sam in Canada.
In 1993, the movie Groundhog Day starring Bill Murray popularized the
usage of "groundhog day" to mean something that is repeated over and
over. Today, tens of thousands of people converge on Gobbler's Knob in
Punxsutawney each February 2 to witness Phil's prediction. The
Punxsutawney Groundhog Club hosts a three-day celebration featuring
entertainment and activities.
Belle Starr
February 3, 1889
Belle Starr murdered in Oklahoma
The outlaw Belle Starr is killed when an unknown assailant fatally wounds the famous "Bandit Queen" with two shotgun blasts from behind.
As with the lives of other famous outlaws like Billy the Kid and Jesse James, fanciful accounts printed in newspapers and dime novels made Belle Starr's harsh and violent life appear far more romantic than it actually was. Born Myra Belle Shirley on a small farm near Carthage, Missouri, in 1848, she received an education in the classics and became a competent pianist. Seemingly headed for an unexciting but respectable middle-class life, her fate was changed by the outbreak of the Civil War, which ruined her father's business as a Carthage innkeeper and claimed the life of her brother Edwin. Devastated, the Shirley family abandoned Missouri to try to make a fresh start in Texas.
In Texas, Belle began her life-long pattern of associating with men of questionable character. In 1866, she met Cole Younger, a member of the James-Younger gang that was gaining notoriety for a series of daring bank and train robberies. Rumor had it that Younger fathered Belle's first child, Pearl, though the father might have actually been another outlaw, Jim Reed. Regardless, Belle's relationship with Younger was short-lived, and in 1866 she became Reed's wife. Belle was apparently untroubled by her new husband's reputation and she had become his partner in crime by 1869. She joined him in stealing cattle, horses, and money in the Dallas area. Riding her mare, Venus, and sporting velvet skirts and plumed hats, Belle played the role of a "bandit queen" for several years.
In 1874, a member of his own gang killed Reed, and Belle was suddenly on her own. Pursued by the law, she drifted into Oklahoma Indian Territory, where she led a band of cattle and horse thieves. There she met a handsome young Cherokee named Sam Starr, who eventually became her common-law husband and new criminal partner. The Starrs managed to elude capture for nearly a decade, but in 1883 they were arrested for horse theft and both served five months in the Detroit federal prison.
Freed from prison, the couple immediately resumed their criminal careers. In 1886, Belle again lost a husband to violent death when Sam Starr was killed in a gunfight with an old enemy. Belle wasted no time in finding a third companion, a Creek Indian named Jim July, an outlaw who was 15 years her junior. In 1889, July was arrested for robbery and summoned to Fort Smith, Arkansas, to face charges. Belle accompanied her young lover for part of the journey but turned back before reaching Fort Smith. On her way home, someone ambushed and fatally wounded her with two shotgun blasts to her back. Jim July believed the murderer was a neighbor with whom the couple had been feuding, but no one was ever convicted of the crime.
Belle Starr murdered in Oklahoma
The outlaw Belle Starr is killed when an unknown assailant fatally wounds the famous "Bandit Queen" with two shotgun blasts from behind.
As with the lives of other famous outlaws like Billy the Kid and Jesse James, fanciful accounts printed in newspapers and dime novels made Belle Starr's harsh and violent life appear far more romantic than it actually was. Born Myra Belle Shirley on a small farm near Carthage, Missouri, in 1848, she received an education in the classics and became a competent pianist. Seemingly headed for an unexciting but respectable middle-class life, her fate was changed by the outbreak of the Civil War, which ruined her father's business as a Carthage innkeeper and claimed the life of her brother Edwin. Devastated, the Shirley family abandoned Missouri to try to make a fresh start in Texas.
In Texas, Belle began her life-long pattern of associating with men of questionable character. In 1866, she met Cole Younger, a member of the James-Younger gang that was gaining notoriety for a series of daring bank and train robberies. Rumor had it that Younger fathered Belle's first child, Pearl, though the father might have actually been another outlaw, Jim Reed. Regardless, Belle's relationship with Younger was short-lived, and in 1866 she became Reed's wife. Belle was apparently untroubled by her new husband's reputation and she had become his partner in crime by 1869. She joined him in stealing cattle, horses, and money in the Dallas area. Riding her mare, Venus, and sporting velvet skirts and plumed hats, Belle played the role of a "bandit queen" for several years.
In 1874, a member of his own gang killed Reed, and Belle was suddenly on her own. Pursued by the law, she drifted into Oklahoma Indian Territory, where she led a band of cattle and horse thieves. There she met a handsome young Cherokee named Sam Starr, who eventually became her common-law husband and new criminal partner. The Starrs managed to elude capture for nearly a decade, but in 1883 they were arrested for horse theft and both served five months in the Detroit federal prison.
Freed from prison, the couple immediately resumed their criminal careers. In 1886, Belle again lost a husband to violent death when Sam Starr was killed in a gunfight with an old enemy. Belle wasted no time in finding a third companion, a Creek Indian named Jim July, an outlaw who was 15 years her junior. In 1889, July was arrested for robbery and summoned to Fort Smith, Arkansas, to face charges. Belle accompanied her young lover for part of the journey but turned back before reaching Fort Smith. On her way home, someone ambushed and fatally wounded her with two shotgun blasts to her back. Jim July believed the murderer was a neighbor with whom the couple had been feuding, but no one was ever convicted of the crime.
Cake Charms
How to Use Cake Charms...
What a romantic Victorian era tradition to make your wedding grand! The custom of "ribbon pulling" dates back to time of Queen Victoria (as do most of our wonderful wedding traditions). A bride would hide small charms (distinctive symbols of romance, love, friendship, memorials, etc.) attached to satin ribbons within the icing of her wedding cake. The bride would have each of her bridesmaids (as well as other important women in her life) pull a charm from the cake before it was cut. It was believed each charm had a special meaning, a bit of advice, or would foretell the future in luck, romance, fortune, etc.
Traditionally, the bride's attendants (even friends, children, family members can participate) assemble behind the cake, along with the bride and groom, at the wedding reception. The ribbon-pulling ceremony takes place just after the cake-cutting ceremony, but prior to cake-serving. Each person takes a turn and pulls a ribbon from the cake. The charm's meaning is revealed. Some couples like to have the ribbon-pulling ceremony prior to the cake-cutting - it's your wedding, do what you want!
If you like the idea of the ribbon-pulling ceremony, but do not want it to be part of the wedding reception - consider having a small cake made with the ribbon pulls for your bridal luncheon/tea/brunch, rehearsal dinner or bridal shower. Some people even opt to have a small bridesmaid charm cake in addition to the main wedding cake.
Today, charm cakes are being included in showers, birthdays, afternoon teas, etc. - any event involving a cake! Charms make perfect party favors for your guests and they have a keepsake charm as a remembrance of the event.
What a romantic Victorian era tradition to make your wedding grand! The custom of "ribbon pulling" dates back to time of Queen Victoria (as do most of our wonderful wedding traditions). A bride would hide small charms (distinctive symbols of romance, love, friendship, memorials, etc.) attached to satin ribbons within the icing of her wedding cake. The bride would have each of her bridesmaids (as well as other important women in her life) pull a charm from the cake before it was cut. It was believed each charm had a special meaning, a bit of advice, or would foretell the future in luck, romance, fortune, etc.
Traditionally, the bride's attendants (even friends, children, family members can participate) assemble behind the cake, along with the bride and groom, at the wedding reception. The ribbon-pulling ceremony takes place just after the cake-cutting ceremony, but prior to cake-serving. Each person takes a turn and pulls a ribbon from the cake. The charm's meaning is revealed. Some couples like to have the ribbon-pulling ceremony prior to the cake-cutting - it's your wedding, do what you want!
If you like the idea of the ribbon-pulling ceremony, but do not want it to be part of the wedding reception - consider having a small cake made with the ribbon pulls for your bridal luncheon/tea/brunch, rehearsal dinner or bridal shower. Some people even opt to have a small bridesmaid charm cake in addition to the main wedding cake.
Today, charm cakes are being included in showers, birthdays, afternoon teas, etc. - any event involving a cake! Charms make perfect party favors for your guests and they have a keepsake charm as a remembrance of the event.
Dawes Act
February 8, 1887
Cleveland signs devastating Dawes Act into law
On this day in 1887, President Grover Cleveland signs the Dawes Severalty Act into law. The act split up reservations held communally by Native American tribes into smaller units and distributed these units to individuals within the tribe. Also called the “General Allotment Act,” the law changed the legal status of Native Americans from tribal members to “individuals” subject to federal laws and dissolved many tribal affiliations The Dawes Severalty/General Allotment Act constituted a huge blow to tribal sovereignty.
Cleveland’s goal was to encourage Native Americans to integrate into American agrarian culture. Cleveland, who once said “though the people support the government; the government should not support the people,” led a socially reformist yet financially conservative government that did not believe in welfare handouts. He signed the act in a sincere but misguided attempt to improve the Native Americans’ lives by incorporating them into white culture, rejecting earlier policies toward Native Americans that forced them to live on desolate reservations where it was difficult to make a living. However, his support of the Dawes Severalty Act actually did more damage than good.
Under the Dawes Act, the head of each Native American family received 160 acres in an effort to encourage Native Americans to take up farming, live in smaller family units that were considered more “American” and renounce tribal loyalties. The government held such lands in trust for 25 years, until the recipients could prove themselves self-sufficient farmers. Before the family could sell their allotment, they were required to get a certificate of competency. If the family did not succeed at farming, the land reverted back to the federal government for sale, usually to white settlers. The Dawes Act reduced Native American landholdings from 138 million acres in 1887 to 78 million in 1900 and continued the trend of white settlement on previously Native American-held land. In addition, the law created federally funded boarding schools designed to assimilate Native American children into white society. Family and cultural ties were practically destroyed by the now-notorious boarding schools, in which children were punished for speaking their native language or performing native rituals.
The Dawes Severalty Act was finally abolished in 1934, during President Franklin Roosevelt’s first term.
Cleveland signs the Dawes Severalty Act
In a well-meaning but ultimately flawed attempt to assimilate Native Americans, President Grover Cleveland signs an act to end tribal control of reservations and divide their land into individual holdings.
Named for its chief author, Senator Henry Laurens Dawes from Massachusetts, the Dawes Severalty Act reversed the long-standing American policy of allowing Indian tribes to maintain their traditional practice of communal use and control of their lands. Instead, the Dawes Act gave the president the power to divide Indian reservations into individual, privately owned plots. The act dictated that men with families would receive 160 acres, single adult men were given 80 acres, and boys received 40 acres. Women received no land.
The most important motivation for the Dawes Act was Anglo-American hunger for Indian lands. The act provided that after the government had doled out land allotments to the Indians, the sizeable remainder of the reservation properties would be opened for sale to whites. Consequently, Indians eventually lost 86 million acres of land, or 62 percent of their total pre-1887 holdings.
Still, the Dawes Act was not solely a product of greed. Many religious and humanitarian "friends of the Indian" supported the act as a necessary step toward fully assimilating the Indians into American culture. Reformers believed that Indians would never bridge the chasm between "barbarism and civilization" if they maintained their tribal cohesion and traditional ways. J.D.C. Atkins, commissioner of Indian affairs, argued that the Dawes Act was the first step toward transforming, "Idleness, improvidence, ignorance, and superstition.... into industry, thrift, intelligence, and Christianity."
In reality, the Dawes Severalty Act proved a very effective tool for taking lands from Indians and giving it to Anglos, but the promised benefits to the Indians never materialized. Racism, bureaucratic bungling, and inherent weaknesses in the law deprived the Indians of the strengths of tribal ownership, while severely limiting the economic viability of individual ownership. Many tribes also deeply resented and resisted the government's heavy-handed attempt to destroy their traditional cultures.
Despite these flaws, the Dawes Severalty Act remained in force for more than four decades. In 1934, the Wheeler-Howard Act repudiated the policy and attempted to revive the centrality of tribal control and cultural autonomy on the reservations. The Wheeler-Howard Act ended further transfer of Indian lands to Anglos and provided for a return to voluntary communal Indian ownership, but considerable damage had already been done.
Cleveland signs devastating Dawes Act into law
On this day in 1887, President Grover Cleveland signs the Dawes Severalty Act into law. The act split up reservations held communally by Native American tribes into smaller units and distributed these units to individuals within the tribe. Also called the “General Allotment Act,” the law changed the legal status of Native Americans from tribal members to “individuals” subject to federal laws and dissolved many tribal affiliations The Dawes Severalty/General Allotment Act constituted a huge blow to tribal sovereignty.
Cleveland’s goal was to encourage Native Americans to integrate into American agrarian culture. Cleveland, who once said “though the people support the government; the government should not support the people,” led a socially reformist yet financially conservative government that did not believe in welfare handouts. He signed the act in a sincere but misguided attempt to improve the Native Americans’ lives by incorporating them into white culture, rejecting earlier policies toward Native Americans that forced them to live on desolate reservations where it was difficult to make a living. However, his support of the Dawes Severalty Act actually did more damage than good.
Under the Dawes Act, the head of each Native American family received 160 acres in an effort to encourage Native Americans to take up farming, live in smaller family units that were considered more “American” and renounce tribal loyalties. The government held such lands in trust for 25 years, until the recipients could prove themselves self-sufficient farmers. Before the family could sell their allotment, they were required to get a certificate of competency. If the family did not succeed at farming, the land reverted back to the federal government for sale, usually to white settlers. The Dawes Act reduced Native American landholdings from 138 million acres in 1887 to 78 million in 1900 and continued the trend of white settlement on previously Native American-held land. In addition, the law created federally funded boarding schools designed to assimilate Native American children into white society. Family and cultural ties were practically destroyed by the now-notorious boarding schools, in which children were punished for speaking their native language or performing native rituals.
The Dawes Severalty Act was finally abolished in 1934, during President Franklin Roosevelt’s first term.
Cleveland signs the Dawes Severalty Act
In a well-meaning but ultimately flawed attempt to assimilate Native Americans, President Grover Cleveland signs an act to end tribal control of reservations and divide their land into individual holdings.
Named for its chief author, Senator Henry Laurens Dawes from Massachusetts, the Dawes Severalty Act reversed the long-standing American policy of allowing Indian tribes to maintain their traditional practice of communal use and control of their lands. Instead, the Dawes Act gave the president the power to divide Indian reservations into individual, privately owned plots. The act dictated that men with families would receive 160 acres, single adult men were given 80 acres, and boys received 40 acres. Women received no land.
The most important motivation for the Dawes Act was Anglo-American hunger for Indian lands. The act provided that after the government had doled out land allotments to the Indians, the sizeable remainder of the reservation properties would be opened for sale to whites. Consequently, Indians eventually lost 86 million acres of land, or 62 percent of their total pre-1887 holdings.
Still, the Dawes Act was not solely a product of greed. Many religious and humanitarian "friends of the Indian" supported the act as a necessary step toward fully assimilating the Indians into American culture. Reformers believed that Indians would never bridge the chasm between "barbarism and civilization" if they maintained their tribal cohesion and traditional ways. J.D.C. Atkins, commissioner of Indian affairs, argued that the Dawes Act was the first step toward transforming, "Idleness, improvidence, ignorance, and superstition.... into industry, thrift, intelligence, and Christianity."
In reality, the Dawes Severalty Act proved a very effective tool for taking lands from Indians and giving it to Anglos, but the promised benefits to the Indians never materialized. Racism, bureaucratic bungling, and inherent weaknesses in the law deprived the Indians of the strengths of tribal ownership, while severely limiting the economic viability of individual ownership. Many tribes also deeply resented and resisted the government's heavy-handed attempt to destroy their traditional cultures.
Despite these flaws, the Dawes Severalty Act remained in force for more than four decades. In 1934, the Wheeler-Howard Act repudiated the policy and attempted to revive the centrality of tribal control and cultural autonomy on the reservations. The Wheeler-Howard Act ended further transfer of Indian lands to Anglos and provided for a return to voluntary communal Indian ownership, but considerable damage had already been done.
Psyc profiles
Ludus Items
I believe that what my partner doesn’t know about me wont hurt him/her.
I have sometimes had to keep my partner from finding out about other lovers.
My partner would get upset if he she knew about some of the things I’ve done with other people.
Storge Items
Our love is the best kind because it grew out of a long friendship.
Our friendship merged gradually into love over time.
Our love relationship is the most satisfying because it developed from a good friendship.
Pragma Items
A main consideration in choosing my partner was how he/she would reflect on my family.
An important factor in choosing my partner was whether he/she would be a good parent.
One consideration in choosing my partner was how he/she would reflect on my career.
Mania Items
When my partner doesn’t pay attention to me I feel sick all over.
I cannot relax if I suspect that my partner is with someone else.
If my partner ignores me for awhile, I sometimes do stupid things to try to get his/her attention back.
Agape Items
I would rather suffer myself than let my partner suffer.
I cannot be happy unless I place my partner’s happiness before my own.
I would endure all things for the sake of my partner.
The Primary Styles
Eros is characterized by an intense physical and emotional attraction and commitment.
Ludus refers to love that is played out according to a set of rules, and should be fun with no commitment.
Storge is characterized by a deep affection, devotion and commitment.
The Secondary Styles
Mania is an obsessive and intensive love.
With Pragma, love is viewed as a practical matter of finding a compatible partner and settling down.
Agape is an intense for friendly love, often self-sacrificing.
I believe that what my partner doesn’t know about me wont hurt him/her.
I have sometimes had to keep my partner from finding out about other lovers.
My partner would get upset if he she knew about some of the things I’ve done with other people.
Storge Items
Our love is the best kind because it grew out of a long friendship.
Our friendship merged gradually into love over time.
Our love relationship is the most satisfying because it developed from a good friendship.
Pragma Items
A main consideration in choosing my partner was how he/she would reflect on my family.
An important factor in choosing my partner was whether he/she would be a good parent.
One consideration in choosing my partner was how he/she would reflect on my career.
Mania Items
When my partner doesn’t pay attention to me I feel sick all over.
I cannot relax if I suspect that my partner is with someone else.
If my partner ignores me for awhile, I sometimes do stupid things to try to get his/her attention back.
Agape Items
I would rather suffer myself than let my partner suffer.
I cannot be happy unless I place my partner’s happiness before my own.
I would endure all things for the sake of my partner.
The Primary Styles
Eros is characterized by an intense physical and emotional attraction and commitment.
Ludus refers to love that is played out according to a set of rules, and should be fun with no commitment.
Storge is characterized by a deep affection, devotion and commitment.
The Secondary Styles
Mania is an obsessive and intensive love.
With Pragma, love is viewed as a practical matter of finding a compatible partner and settling down.
Agape is an intense for friendly love, often self-sacrificing.
Traces of an imaginary affair
Traces of an Imaginary Affair | 2006
Bjorn Franke likes to explore basic human emotions by creating tools to elicit them. In his latest work, titled "Traces of an Imaginary Affair", Bjorn explores the emotion of jealousy and how some partners use it as a tool to measure how much they are loved or as a means to boost their self-esteem.
Human relationships are often the battleground for all kinds of psychotic disorders and delusions. One of the strongest feeling between partners is the feeling of jealousy,
"which is born in love and which is produced by the fear that the loved person prefers someone else." Littré
The kit contains traces of an imaginary affair. These are tools and probes which leave traces on the body such as bite-marks, carpet burns, and kisses.
http://www.bjornfranke.com/projects.htm
Traces of an Imaginary Affair | 2006
Mixed media | 1 object 335/265/66 | 9 c-prints 400/300
The project investigates how jealousy can be instigated intentionally in relationships, which often serves to bolster self esteem or to test the strength of partnerships. A kit containing a set of nine tools is used as an agent to create an imaginary affair. These tools can be used to leave marks on the body such as bite marks, carpet burns, bondage marks, love bites, scratches and bruises. Probes of perfume, lipstick and hair can be applied to either the body or clothes. The kit enables partners to exhibit their obsessive behavior, a form of psychological warfare, in the most effective way – rather than subjecting it to restrictive cultural norms.
Panic Box | 2004 - 2006
Mixed media | 1 object 960/865/1700 | 3 c-prints 600/450
The Panic Box is an installation that instigates fear and panic through an autonomous environment, in which the control over the situation is restricted. A voice invites the user to enter the man-size box. After closing the door, the user is trapped inside and asked to pass a reaction test in order to open the door. The situation intensifies with the release of a gas which apparently slows down the user’s reaction speed. However, since the test result is manipulated and the reaction speed continuously drops, the only way to exit is to press a panic button which unlocks the door and raises an outside alarm. The machine creates a hopeless situation from which the user can only escape by admitting his feeling of panic.
Bjorn Franke likes to explore basic human emotions by creating tools to elicit them. In his latest work, titled "Traces of an Imaginary Affair", Bjorn explores the emotion of jealousy and how some partners use it as a tool to measure how much they are loved or as a means to boost their self-esteem.
Human relationships are often the battleground for all kinds of psychotic disorders and delusions. One of the strongest feeling between partners is the feeling of jealousy,
"which is born in love and which is produced by the fear that the loved person prefers someone else." Littré
The kit contains traces of an imaginary affair. These are tools and probes which leave traces on the body such as bite-marks, carpet burns, and kisses.
http://www.bjornfranke.com/projects.htm
Traces of an Imaginary Affair | 2006
Mixed media | 1 object 335/265/66 | 9 c-prints 400/300
The project investigates how jealousy can be instigated intentionally in relationships, which often serves to bolster self esteem or to test the strength of partnerships. A kit containing a set of nine tools is used as an agent to create an imaginary affair. These tools can be used to leave marks on the body such as bite marks, carpet burns, bondage marks, love bites, scratches and bruises. Probes of perfume, lipstick and hair can be applied to either the body or clothes. The kit enables partners to exhibit their obsessive behavior, a form of psychological warfare, in the most effective way – rather than subjecting it to restrictive cultural norms.
Panic Box | 2004 - 2006
Mixed media | 1 object 960/865/1700 | 3 c-prints 600/450
The Panic Box is an installation that instigates fear and panic through an autonomous environment, in which the control over the situation is restricted. A voice invites the user to enter the man-size box. After closing the door, the user is trapped inside and asked to pass a reaction test in order to open the door. The situation intensifies with the release of a gas which apparently slows down the user’s reaction speed. However, since the test result is manipulated and the reaction speed continuously drops, the only way to exit is to press a panic button which unlocks the door and raises an outside alarm. The machine creates a hopeless situation from which the user can only escape by admitting his feeling of panic.
Gunfighter
October 16, 1851 -- Psychopathic gunfighter "Wild Bill" Longley is born in Texas
The sadistic and murderous western gunman William Preston Longley is born on this day in 1815 in Austin County, Texas.
Little is reliably known of the youth of William Longley, or "Wild Bill" as he was later aptly called. But it is certain that before he was even 20 years old, Longley had already killed several men, and the evidence suggests he was probably what modern-day psychologists would term a psychopath. Notoriously short-tempered, Longley frequently killed for the most trivial of reasons. More than a few men died simply because he believed they had somehow slighted or insulted him, like an unarmed man named Thomas, who Longley murdered in cold blood for daring to argue with him over a card game. He had a particularly strong dislike of blacks, and African-Americans in Texas avoided him whenever possible.
Wherever Longley traveled he left behind a trail of pointless murders, but most of the details of his life are shrouded in myth and supposition. Legend has it that Longley was once hanged along with a horse thief; but shots fired back by the departing posse cut his rope, and he was saved. Reports that he was imprisoned for at least a time and once lived with the Ute Indians are more believable, though not confirmed.
After fleeing to Louisiana to escape punishment for killing a minister named Roland Lay, Longley was captured and returned to Lee County, Texas, where he was tried and found guilty of murder. Sentenced to hang, during his final days Longley became a Catholic, wrote long letters about his life, and claimed that he had actually only killed eight men. On the day of his execution, October 28, 1878, he climbed the steps to the gallows with a cigar in his mouth and told the gathered crowd that his punishment was just and God had forgiven him. After kissing the sheriff and priest and bidding farewell to the crowd, the noose was fitted around his neck, and he was hanged. Unfortunately, the rope slipped so that Longley's knees hit the ground, denying him a quick and painless death. After the hangman pulled the rope taut once more, the famous killer slowly choked to death. It took 11 minutes before he was finally pronounced dead.
The sadistic and murderous western gunman William Preston Longley is born on this day in 1815 in Austin County, Texas.
Little is reliably known of the youth of William Longley, or "Wild Bill" as he was later aptly called. But it is certain that before he was even 20 years old, Longley had already killed several men, and the evidence suggests he was probably what modern-day psychologists would term a psychopath. Notoriously short-tempered, Longley frequently killed for the most trivial of reasons. More than a few men died simply because he believed they had somehow slighted or insulted him, like an unarmed man named Thomas, who Longley murdered in cold blood for daring to argue with him over a card game. He had a particularly strong dislike of blacks, and African-Americans in Texas avoided him whenever possible.
Wherever Longley traveled he left behind a trail of pointless murders, but most of the details of his life are shrouded in myth and supposition. Legend has it that Longley was once hanged along with a horse thief; but shots fired back by the departing posse cut his rope, and he was saved. Reports that he was imprisoned for at least a time and once lived with the Ute Indians are more believable, though not confirmed.
After fleeing to Louisiana to escape punishment for killing a minister named Roland Lay, Longley was captured and returned to Lee County, Texas, where he was tried and found guilty of murder. Sentenced to hang, during his final days Longley became a Catholic, wrote long letters about his life, and claimed that he had actually only killed eight men. On the day of his execution, October 28, 1878, he climbed the steps to the gallows with a cigar in his mouth and told the gathered crowd that his punishment was just and God had forgiven him. After kissing the sheriff and priest and bidding farewell to the crowd, the noose was fitted around his neck, and he was hanged. Unfortunately, the rope slipped so that Longley's knees hit the ground, denying him a quick and painless death. After the hangman pulled the rope taut once more, the famous killer slowly choked to death. It took 11 minutes before he was finally pronounced dead.
Statue of Liberty
October 28, 1886 -- Statue of Liberty dedicated
The Statue of Liberty, a gift of friendship from the people of France to the people of the United States, is dedicated in New York Harbor by President Grover Cleveland.
Originally known as "Liberty Enlightening the World," the statue was proposed by the French historian Edouard de Laboulaye to commemorate the Franco-American alliance during the American Revolution. Designed by French sculptor Frederic-Auguste Bartholdi, the 151-foot statue was the form of a woman with an uplifted arm holding a torch. Its framework of gigantic steel supports was designed by Eugene-Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc and Alexandre-Gustave Eiffel, the latter famous for his design of the Eiffel Tower in Paris.
In February 1877, Congress approved the use of a site on New York Bedloe's Island, which was suggested by Bartholdi. In May 1884, the statue was completed in France, and three months later the Americans laid the cornerstone for its pedestal in New York Harbor. In June 1885, the dismantled Statue of Liberty arrived in the New World, enclosed in more than 200 packing cases. Its copper sheets were reassembled, and the last rivet of the monument was fitted on October 28, 1886, during a dedication presided over by President Cleveland and attended by numerous French and American dignitaries.
On the pedestal was inscribed "The New Colossus," a sonnet by American poet Emma Lazarus that welcomed immigrants to the United States with the declaration, "Give me your tired, your poor, / Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free, / The wretched refuse of your teeming shore. / Send these, the homeless, tempest-tost to me. / I lift my lamp beside the golden door." In 1892, Ellis Island, adjacent to Bedloe's Island, opened as the chief entry station for immigrants to the United States, and for the next 32 years more than 12 million immigrants were welcomed into New York harbor by the sight of "Lady Liberty." In 1924, the Statue of Liberty was made a national monument, and in 1956 Bedloe's Island was renamed Liberty Island. The statue underwent a major restoration in the 1980s.
The Statue of Liberty, a gift of friendship from the people of France to the people of the United States, is dedicated in New York Harbor by President Grover Cleveland.
Originally known as "Liberty Enlightening the World," the statue was proposed by the French historian Edouard de Laboulaye to commemorate the Franco-American alliance during the American Revolution. Designed by French sculptor Frederic-Auguste Bartholdi, the 151-foot statue was the form of a woman with an uplifted arm holding a torch. Its framework of gigantic steel supports was designed by Eugene-Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc and Alexandre-Gustave Eiffel, the latter famous for his design of the Eiffel Tower in Paris.
In February 1877, Congress approved the use of a site on New York Bedloe's Island, which was suggested by Bartholdi. In May 1884, the statue was completed in France, and three months later the Americans laid the cornerstone for its pedestal in New York Harbor. In June 1885, the dismantled Statue of Liberty arrived in the New World, enclosed in more than 200 packing cases. Its copper sheets were reassembled, and the last rivet of the monument was fitted on October 28, 1886, during a dedication presided over by President Cleveland and attended by numerous French and American dignitaries.
On the pedestal was inscribed "The New Colossus," a sonnet by American poet Emma Lazarus that welcomed immigrants to the United States with the declaration, "Give me your tired, your poor, / Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free, / The wretched refuse of your teeming shore. / Send these, the homeless, tempest-tost to me. / I lift my lamp beside the golden door." In 1892, Ellis Island, adjacent to Bedloe's Island, opened as the chief entry station for immigrants to the United States, and for the next 32 years more than 12 million immigrants were welcomed into New York harbor by the sight of "Lady Liberty." In 1924, the Statue of Liberty was made a national monument, and in 1956 Bedloe's Island was renamed Liberty Island. The statue underwent a major restoration in the 1980s.
First store in Denver
October 29, 1858 -- The first store opens in the frontier town of Denver, Colorado
On this day in 1858, the first store opens in a small frontier town in Colorado Territory that a month later will take the name of Denver in a shameless ploy to curry favor with Kansas Territorial Gover nor James W. Denver.
The brainchild of a town promoter and real estate salesman from Kansas named William H. Larimer Jr., Denver and its first store were created to serve the miners working the placer gold deposits discovered a year before at the confluence of Cheery Creek and the South Platte River. By 1859, tens of thousands of gold seekers had flooded into the area, but by then the placer deposits were already playing out and most miners quickly departed for home or headed west into the mountains in search of richer lodes.
As a result, by 1860, Larimer's new town had almost failed before it ha d even really started. Although it was still centrally located for servicing the mining camps along the Rocky Mountain Front Range, Denver had neither the rail or water transportation routes needed to bring in goods cheaply. Even the transcontinental Union Pacific railroad, which opened in 1869, didn't stop at Denver initially. In 1870, Denver began to overcome its geographical isolation with t he arrival of the Kansas Pacific Railroad from the East and the completion of the 105-mile Denver Pacific Railway joining Denver to the Union Pacific line at Cheyenne. Other lines began to connect Denver to the booming mining regions in th e Rockies, and by the mid-1870s, the city was thriving as a railroad hub and center of the western mining industry.
By 1890, Denver had a population of more than 106,000, making it the 26th largest urban area in the nation and earning it the nickname, the "Queen City of the Plains." However , the Silver Panic of 1893 brought the boom to an abrupt end, though it was partially revived a year later by the gold discoveries on Cripple Creek. Although t he growing significance of farming and ranching helped moderate its ups and down s by decreasing the city's dependency on mining, this cyclical pattern of economic boom and bust would continue to dominate Denver, and many other western cities, throughout much of the 20th century.
On this day in 1858, the first store opens in a small frontier town in Colorado Territory that a month later will take the name of Denver in a shameless ploy to curry favor with Kansas Territorial Gover nor James W. Denver.
The brainchild of a town promoter and real estate salesman from Kansas named William H. Larimer Jr., Denver and its first store were created to serve the miners working the placer gold deposits discovered a year before at the confluence of Cheery Creek and the South Platte River. By 1859, tens of thousands of gold seekers had flooded into the area, but by then the placer deposits were already playing out and most miners quickly departed for home or headed west into the mountains in search of richer lodes.
As a result, by 1860, Larimer's new town had almost failed before it ha d even really started. Although it was still centrally located for servicing the mining camps along the Rocky Mountain Front Range, Denver had neither the rail or water transportation routes needed to bring in goods cheaply. Even the transcontinental Union Pacific railroad, which opened in 1869, didn't stop at Denver initially. In 1870, Denver began to overcome its geographical isolation with t he arrival of the Kansas Pacific Railroad from the East and the completion of the 105-mile Denver Pacific Railway joining Denver to the Union Pacific line at Cheyenne. Other lines began to connect Denver to the booming mining regions in th e Rockies, and by the mid-1870s, the city was thriving as a railroad hub and center of the western mining industry.
By 1890, Denver had a population of more than 106,000, making it the 26th largest urban area in the nation and earning it the nickname, the "Queen City of the Plains." However , the Silver Panic of 1893 brought the boom to an abrupt end, though it was partially revived a year later by the gold discoveries on Cripple Creek. Although t he growing significance of farming and ranching helped moderate its ups and down s by decreasing the city's dependency on mining, this cyclical pattern of economic boom and bust would continue to dominate Denver, and many other western cities, throughout much of the 20th century.
Story Idea from a ministry report
A high ropes course is a set of cables, ropes and platforms that are placed among trees in the form of an obstacle course about thirty feet off the ground. One description I found says that the purpose of the course is to help participants learn about risk taking, their own perceived limits, how they perform under pressure, how they give and receive support from other people, and how working with others collaboratively can help an individual achieve more than they thought they could accomplish.
But through the experience, I had learned several things about myself and about where we are in ministry today:
* Some times ministry offers no more stability than a steel cable attached between two trees. We have to lean into the rope to make our way across. We have to trust in God that God will lead us when we are trying in our own strength to make our way.
* Ministry is like the swing seat that starts moving before you are securely on it. We live in a rapidly changing world. We must adapt to the changing neighborhoods, changing expectations, and changing needs in the communities around our congregations.
* We have to face our fears and step out in faith. If we think things will get easier or if the challenges that we face in our congregations will go away if we just wait or stick our heads in the sand, that’s not going to happen. We have to risk stepping out in uncertain times on nothing more than a thin rope or cable.
* Failure is a real possibility. If we step out in new ministries, if we launch out in new directions as God calls us, we may not always succeed. We need to realize that is part of the “risk taking” that stepping out in mission means.
* It’s good to have mentors and guides, and it’s good to work in teams. We cannot function on our own or by ourselves. We need to trust in God’s guidance and in the leading of the Holy Spirit. We need to seek those persons who can help to guide and mentor us as we move out in ministry. We need others to watch out for us, and we need to watch out for one another as we face new challenges in ministry and mission.
* Grace abounds. When I fell off the “hourglass” obstacle, I didn’t fall to the ground. I hung from my safety harness. It’s good to know that God is there to help pick us up when we falter. Grace is truly amazing.
These are just a few of the lessons that I have learned through my experience on the high ropes. We live in times where we must, as Adam Hamilton challenges us, “change, innovate, or die.” These are days that call for us to be in prayer, to be listening and seeking what God has in store for our congregations and our mission as the church today.
But through the experience, I had learned several things about myself and about where we are in ministry today:
* Some times ministry offers no more stability than a steel cable attached between two trees. We have to lean into the rope to make our way across. We have to trust in God that God will lead us when we are trying in our own strength to make our way.
* Ministry is like the swing seat that starts moving before you are securely on it. We live in a rapidly changing world. We must adapt to the changing neighborhoods, changing expectations, and changing needs in the communities around our congregations.
* We have to face our fears and step out in faith. If we think things will get easier or if the challenges that we face in our congregations will go away if we just wait or stick our heads in the sand, that’s not going to happen. We have to risk stepping out in uncertain times on nothing more than a thin rope or cable.
* Failure is a real possibility. If we step out in new ministries, if we launch out in new directions as God calls us, we may not always succeed. We need to realize that is part of the “risk taking” that stepping out in mission means.
* It’s good to have mentors and guides, and it’s good to work in teams. We cannot function on our own or by ourselves. We need to trust in God’s guidance and in the leading of the Holy Spirit. We need to seek those persons who can help to guide and mentor us as we move out in ministry. We need others to watch out for us, and we need to watch out for one another as we face new challenges in ministry and mission.
* Grace abounds. When I fell off the “hourglass” obstacle, I didn’t fall to the ground. I hung from my safety harness. It’s good to know that God is there to help pick us up when we falter. Grace is truly amazing.
These are just a few of the lessons that I have learned through my experience on the high ropes. We live in times where we must, as Adam Hamilton challenges us, “change, innovate, or die.” These are days that call for us to be in prayer, to be listening and seeking what God has in store for our congregations and our mission as the church today.
Possible Story Idea from a Book Review
23 December 2006
Christmas Book Review
Our Annual Christmas Pick for Civil War Book Buffs ~
God Rest Ye Merry Soldiers ~ A True Civil War Christmas Story
By James McIvor
Published by Viking/The Penguin Group, 2005
Hardcover, 162 pages, $19.95
Reviewed by Richard G. Williams, Jr.
“Christmas has come once more and it is a very beautiful morning, but O! how changed the scene to what it was last Christmas. Today twelve months ago I was home where I could enjoy the blessings of a comfortable house and home of parents and friends and of religious worship, but this Christmas I am surrounded by warriors, cannons, and guns . . . But I hope and pray that the good Lord in his tender mercy may soon bring this state of things to an end and restore Peace and prosperity to our beloved Country again and turn the hearts of the rulers to peace for ever instead of war.”
This soldier’s heart-wrenching plea for peace and home could have been written by one of our soldiers in Iraq. But it wasn’t. The words came from the pen of North Carolina soldier Constantine A. Hege on Christmas Day in 1862 and his letter home is how James McIvor opens his wonderful book, God Rest Ye Merry Soldiers ~ A True Civil War Christmas Story.
Recounting the events that transpired at Christmas time during the Battle of Stones River (Tennessee) in 1862, this little volume packs a lot of insight into what Christmas was like during the four terrible years that engulfed the Nation from 1861-1865. Ironically, as McIvor points out, it was during those devastating years that Christmas became “a truly American holiday in a way that it had never entirely been before.” (p. 153)
Perhaps it was, in the words of Confederate Hege, “the blessings of a comfortable house and home of parents” that first made Christmas time so special for those lonely, homesick soldiers. As those thousands of veterans, both North and South, returned home after the war they doubtless looked forward to enjoying that first Christmas of peace with loved ones—thankful to have survived a war that took the lives of so many of their comrades. Yet those painful memories of the war also contained some poignant recollections.
McIvor recounts one such event as the Union and Confederate armies camped near each other at Murfreesboro, Tennessee. It was just after Christmas, on the night of December 30th, 1862 that an unusual event occurred. The opposing armies’ bands began playing their favorite melodies; the Union band first striking up a taunting rendition of “Yankee Doodle.” The Confederates fired back with “Dixie” and “The Bonnie Blue Flag”. The duel continued as the Yankees played and sang “Hail Columbia”—“another song from the Revolution that the North had adopted as an anthem of its new fight in the Civil War.” (p. 101)
Then something unplanned and unexpected happened. McIvor writes:
“Finally one of them struck up ‘Home! Sweet Home!’ As if by common consent, all other airs ceased, and the bands of both armies, far as the ear could reach, joined in the refrain. . . Soon the men of both sides, North and South, were all raising their voices to sing the familiar words together.” (p. 102-103)
The final words of the familiar tune must have reminded the soldiers that they might not see home again: “Be it ever so humble, there’s no place like home, Home! Home, sweet Home!” McIvor recounts the words of one Tennessee soldier:
“And after our bands had ceased playing, we could hear the sweet refrain as it died away on the cool frosty air on the Federal side.” There would be more dying in the days to come yet the men who experienced this very special Christmas—and survived—would carry those special memories home to their loved ones. As the author points out, “The mass migration and social dislocation the war had left in its wake made a holiday tied to the timeless cornerstones of family and children all the more important to a restless and growing nation.” (p. 156)
If you need a last minute Christmas gift for that Civil War buff on your list, readers would do well to consider this delightful book. (This review appeared in The Washington Times on 23 December 2006 - Used by permission)
Christmas Book Review
Our Annual Christmas Pick for Civil War Book Buffs ~
God Rest Ye Merry Soldiers ~ A True Civil War Christmas Story
By James McIvor
Published by Viking/The Penguin Group, 2005
Hardcover, 162 pages, $19.95
Reviewed by Richard G. Williams, Jr.
“Christmas has come once more and it is a very beautiful morning, but O! how changed the scene to what it was last Christmas. Today twelve months ago I was home where I could enjoy the blessings of a comfortable house and home of parents and friends and of religious worship, but this Christmas I am surrounded by warriors, cannons, and guns . . . But I hope and pray that the good Lord in his tender mercy may soon bring this state of things to an end and restore Peace and prosperity to our beloved Country again and turn the hearts of the rulers to peace for ever instead of war.”
This soldier’s heart-wrenching plea for peace and home could have been written by one of our soldiers in Iraq. But it wasn’t. The words came from the pen of North Carolina soldier Constantine A. Hege on Christmas Day in 1862 and his letter home is how James McIvor opens his wonderful book, God Rest Ye Merry Soldiers ~ A True Civil War Christmas Story.
Recounting the events that transpired at Christmas time during the Battle of Stones River (Tennessee) in 1862, this little volume packs a lot of insight into what Christmas was like during the four terrible years that engulfed the Nation from 1861-1865. Ironically, as McIvor points out, it was during those devastating years that Christmas became “a truly American holiday in a way that it had never entirely been before.” (p. 153)
Perhaps it was, in the words of Confederate Hege, “the blessings of a comfortable house and home of parents” that first made Christmas time so special for those lonely, homesick soldiers. As those thousands of veterans, both North and South, returned home after the war they doubtless looked forward to enjoying that first Christmas of peace with loved ones—thankful to have survived a war that took the lives of so many of their comrades. Yet those painful memories of the war also contained some poignant recollections.
McIvor recounts one such event as the Union and Confederate armies camped near each other at Murfreesboro, Tennessee. It was just after Christmas, on the night of December 30th, 1862 that an unusual event occurred. The opposing armies’ bands began playing their favorite melodies; the Union band first striking up a taunting rendition of “Yankee Doodle.” The Confederates fired back with “Dixie” and “The Bonnie Blue Flag”. The duel continued as the Yankees played and sang “Hail Columbia”—“another song from the Revolution that the North had adopted as an anthem of its new fight in the Civil War.” (p. 101)
Then something unplanned and unexpected happened. McIvor writes:
“Finally one of them struck up ‘Home! Sweet Home!’ As if by common consent, all other airs ceased, and the bands of both armies, far as the ear could reach, joined in the refrain. . . Soon the men of both sides, North and South, were all raising their voices to sing the familiar words together.” (p. 102-103)
The final words of the familiar tune must have reminded the soldiers that they might not see home again: “Be it ever so humble, there’s no place like home, Home! Home, sweet Home!” McIvor recounts the words of one Tennessee soldier:
“And after our bands had ceased playing, we could hear the sweet refrain as it died away on the cool frosty air on the Federal side.” There would be more dying in the days to come yet the men who experienced this very special Christmas—and survived—would carry those special memories home to their loved ones. As the author points out, “The mass migration and social dislocation the war had left in its wake made a holiday tied to the timeless cornerstones of family and children all the more important to a restless and growing nation.” (p. 156)
If you need a last minute Christmas gift for that Civil War buff on your list, readers would do well to consider this delightful book. (This review appeared in The Washington Times on 23 December 2006 - Used by permission)
Creative Writing Tips
"As If" Thinking, Pretending, and Creative Thinking
Dialog with an imaginary mentor: Imagine a person (living or dead), a person whose ideas you respect and admire. Try to select someone you sense would have good ideas about the problem you face. Now, with your notebook in front of you, imagine you are sitting across from this person in a quiet coffee shop, and can ask him or her anything you want. Write a question in your notebook. Then with a different color of ink write what you imagine your mentor would reply. Continue this process for 20 minutes or so until you have the information you need.
Sit right down and write yourself a letter: Make believe you are a sage or a wise woman, you have seen and know everything. You have been watching the real you grapple with the problem you face and the time has come to speak. As this wise person, write yourself a letter of encouragement and advice. Make it as least a page.
If you are just starting to write in a journal or have temporarily run out of steam, here are some ideas.
Look at a magazine and find a picture that appeals to you. Cut it out, paste it in your notebook and write about it.
Draw a word portrait of your interior landscape. Next draw a word portrait of your exterior landscape.
Invent a dream you wish you'd had. Write about it in detail, paying special attention to concrete sensory images.
Write a dream that a plant, a fish, a star, or a stone might have.
List all of the things that have happened to you only once in your entire life.
Write about an event in your life – first from your perspective and then from the perspective of someone else who was present.
Write about a person or an event that is a paradox or contradiction.
Turn a feeling – love, joy, beauty, anger or fatigue – into a character. Write a detailed description and dialog with this character.
Allow your pen to give voice to a part of your body besides your mind. Have this part write a letter to you. Write a response.
If you were to select music for a soundtrack of the day you've had, what songs would you play in the background? Why?
Invent a new myth for the beginning of the universe.
Write down everything that comes into your mind about money.
Pick the first date from the past and place that pop into your mind. Now write a journal entry as though you were reliving a former lifetime.
Write about a belief you've discarded.
Your life is a journey. From where? To where? Write a travel article about this trip.
Write an entry telling another person something that you are too afraid or reluctant to tell them.
http://www.kporterfield.com/journal/Journal_Prompts.html
Dialog with an imaginary mentor: Imagine a person (living or dead), a person whose ideas you respect and admire. Try to select someone you sense would have good ideas about the problem you face. Now, with your notebook in front of you, imagine you are sitting across from this person in a quiet coffee shop, and can ask him or her anything you want. Write a question in your notebook. Then with a different color of ink write what you imagine your mentor would reply. Continue this process for 20 minutes or so until you have the information you need.
Sit right down and write yourself a letter: Make believe you are a sage or a wise woman, you have seen and know everything. You have been watching the real you grapple with the problem you face and the time has come to speak. As this wise person, write yourself a letter of encouragement and advice. Make it as least a page.
If you are just starting to write in a journal or have temporarily run out of steam, here are some ideas.
Look at a magazine and find a picture that appeals to you. Cut it out, paste it in your notebook and write about it.
Draw a word portrait of your interior landscape. Next draw a word portrait of your exterior landscape.
Invent a dream you wish you'd had. Write about it in detail, paying special attention to concrete sensory images.
Write a dream that a plant, a fish, a star, or a stone might have.
List all of the things that have happened to you only once in your entire life.
Write about an event in your life – first from your perspective and then from the perspective of someone else who was present.
Write about a person or an event that is a paradox or contradiction.
Turn a feeling – love, joy, beauty, anger or fatigue – into a character. Write a detailed description and dialog with this character.
Allow your pen to give voice to a part of your body besides your mind. Have this part write a letter to you. Write a response.
If you were to select music for a soundtrack of the day you've had, what songs would you play in the background? Why?
Invent a new myth for the beginning of the universe.
Write down everything that comes into your mind about money.
Pick the first date from the past and place that pop into your mind. Now write a journal entry as though you were reliving a former lifetime.
Write about a belief you've discarded.
Your life is a journey. From where? To where? Write a travel article about this trip.
Write an entry telling another person something that you are too afraid or reluctant to tell them.
http://www.kporterfield.com/journal/Journal_Prompts.html
Silver City, New Mexico
A Mountain Hideaway in the Land of Enchantment
Reprinted from the Jan-Feb 2005 issue of Southwest Aviator Magazine
Story and Photos By Ron Kilber
September 2004
If Billy the Kid were alive today, he would see that the land and mountains haven’t changed much since the late 1800s around his childhood boomtown home of Silver City. Even many of the brick buildings of his time still stand in town today. But gone are the silver miners who gave birth to Silver City, back when it was still an Apache Indian camp in 1870, 42 years before New Mexico received statehood.
While Civil War hero Ulysses S. Grant was president of the United States, hopefuls arrived in Silver City by the thousands for a chance to win the silver-ore lottery. As the town boomed, General George Armstrong Custer was making his last stand on the Little Big Horn River, U.S. Marshal Wyatt Earp was keeping the peace in nearby Tombstone, Jesse James was wreaking havoc on trains carrying gold, and Mark Twain was writing Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn.
Tucked away in the southwest corner of New Mexico, Silver City is now a college town thriving with students, artists, museum curators, shop owners, restaurateurs, and purveyors to the hospitality and travel industry. Ranching in the area remains a primary industry, as it has since the repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act in 1893, which ruined the silver market more than 100 years ago.
For aviators, Silver City is an undiscovered, civilized hideaway situated on the outskirts of the vast Gila Wilderness Area, home of the archeologically significant Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument. Silver City is also gateway to one of the most visually stimulating and geologically fascinating areas of the Southwest, with spectacularly wooded mountains, rustic western towns, and unique adventures.
Reprinted from the Jan-Feb 2005 issue of Southwest Aviator Magazine
Story and Photos By Ron Kilber
September 2004
If Billy the Kid were alive today, he would see that the land and mountains haven’t changed much since the late 1800s around his childhood boomtown home of Silver City. Even many of the brick buildings of his time still stand in town today. But gone are the silver miners who gave birth to Silver City, back when it was still an Apache Indian camp in 1870, 42 years before New Mexico received statehood.
While Civil War hero Ulysses S. Grant was president of the United States, hopefuls arrived in Silver City by the thousands for a chance to win the silver-ore lottery. As the town boomed, General George Armstrong Custer was making his last stand on the Little Big Horn River, U.S. Marshal Wyatt Earp was keeping the peace in nearby Tombstone, Jesse James was wreaking havoc on trains carrying gold, and Mark Twain was writing Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn.
Tucked away in the southwest corner of New Mexico, Silver City is now a college town thriving with students, artists, museum curators, shop owners, restaurateurs, and purveyors to the hospitality and travel industry. Ranching in the area remains a primary industry, as it has since the repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act in 1893, which ruined the silver market more than 100 years ago.
For aviators, Silver City is an undiscovered, civilized hideaway situated on the outskirts of the vast Gila Wilderness Area, home of the archeologically significant Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument. Silver City is also gateway to one of the most visually stimulating and geologically fascinating areas of the Southwest, with spectacularly wooded mountains, rustic western towns, and unique adventures.
Taggart/Taggert genealogy
Taggart/Taggert genealogy
of Steuben County NY
William Taggart/Taggert from New York who married a Susan Underwood in 1853. From what I can tell they lived in Whitesville or West Union of Steuben county.
Taggart family from Tyrone Co., Ireland
John Taggart born 1780 in Ireland married Fanny (Elizabeth Frances) Rolston born abt 1784 Ireland. They had 5 sons and 2 daughters. They left Ireland between 1828, as this is the birthday of their last child and 1839 as this is the birth date of one the earliest grandchildren.
A letter of Jan. 9th 1864 from Charles T. Kelsey, Asst. Surgeon reads in part, "I do hereby certify… that he has been suffering from rheumatism so as to be almost incapacitated for duty during the last nine months, and within the last thirty days he has become so much debilitated that his life is seriously threatened. …in my opinion, unfit for duty. …he will not be able to resume his duties in a less period than twenty days and the prospect of his recovery is distant and uncertain." George then requests for a leave of absence the next day, Jan. 10th, but is yet performing duties 16 days later where upon he writes on January 26th "To Henry Thompson… I would respectfully ask that a leave of absence for Ten (10) days be granted…" which was approved and forwarded the following day. Whether he returned to active duty through February I do not know.
A letter was written March 11th 1864, addressed to Secretary of War, Edwin M. Stanton, and signed by 21 of his fellow* officers, petitioning President Lincoln "to appoint and Commission him Commissary of Subsistance with rank of Captain." George's health continued to decline and it seems sick leave was granted "from March 19: 20 days from April 8, 1864: 20 days from April 28, 1864." Then at the age of 42 years 6 mos. and 5 days, he died on May 27th 1864 at Addison, surrounded by his wife and three young children, the eldest, Eva, having just turned eleven years ten days earlier. Some months after his widow filed an application for pension there were written two further letters by Asst. Surgeon Charles T. Kelsey certifying that George had "died of Rheumatism and 'Bright's disease of the Kidney's', which diseases were contracted in the line of his duty with his regiment in the field, during the campaign of 1863."
He had survived four horses being shot from beneath him during his participation in the war and it would be another year before the last of the Confederate soldiers would surrender and the Civil War would come to an end. In a "June 9th 1862" letter from "U.S. Hospital Philadelphia" written to his wife from Rodney R. Crowley it reads "Your husband requested me… to let you know that he is well + escaped the tremendous battle of Sunday June 1st unhurt. The 64th lost 186 killed wounded + missing + it is almost a miracle that George did not get hit. I am slightly wounded and on my way home. (signed)" We have 23 letters that George wrote home to his family during the war, starting with Dec 13th 1861 at Camp Fenton and ending with May 3rd 1863 at Falmouth.
There are 11 known images of him taken throughout his life, two of which he appears on horses, both tintypes. Another tintype is of him seated with Col. Daniel G. Bingham and an as yet unknown officer no doubt of the 64th. Three are Daguerreotypes, one of which is pencil signed as noted above, another in a locket that belonged to his wife, Anne and shows that of their youngest son, James Baldwin Taggart, who died in infancy, on the reverse side. Four are albumen prints, 2 of which were taken in sequence of one another standing in full uniform, another larger in an oval frame of him seated.
of Steuben County NY
William Taggart/Taggert from New York who married a Susan Underwood in 1853. From what I can tell they lived in Whitesville or West Union of Steuben county.
Taggart family from Tyrone Co., Ireland
John Taggart born 1780 in Ireland married Fanny (Elizabeth Frances) Rolston born abt 1784 Ireland. They had 5 sons and 2 daughters. They left Ireland between 1828, as this is the birthday of their last child and 1839 as this is the birth date of one the earliest grandchildren.
A letter of Jan. 9th 1864 from Charles T. Kelsey, Asst. Surgeon reads in part, "I do hereby certify… that he has been suffering from rheumatism so as to be almost incapacitated for duty during the last nine months, and within the last thirty days he has become so much debilitated that his life is seriously threatened. …in my opinion, unfit for duty. …he will not be able to resume his duties in a less period than twenty days and the prospect of his recovery is distant and uncertain." George then requests for a leave of absence the next day, Jan. 10th, but is yet performing duties 16 days later where upon he writes on January 26th "To Henry Thompson… I would respectfully ask that a leave of absence for Ten (10) days be granted…" which was approved and forwarded the following day. Whether he returned to active duty through February I do not know.
A letter was written March 11th 1864, addressed to Secretary of War, Edwin M. Stanton, and signed by 21 of his fellow* officers, petitioning President Lincoln "to appoint and Commission him Commissary of Subsistance with rank of Captain." George's health continued to decline and it seems sick leave was granted "from March 19: 20 days from April 8, 1864: 20 days from April 28, 1864." Then at the age of 42 years 6 mos. and 5 days, he died on May 27th 1864 at Addison, surrounded by his wife and three young children, the eldest, Eva, having just turned eleven years ten days earlier. Some months after his widow filed an application for pension there were written two further letters by Asst. Surgeon Charles T. Kelsey certifying that George had "died of Rheumatism and 'Bright's disease of the Kidney's', which diseases were contracted in the line of his duty with his regiment in the field, during the campaign of 1863."
He had survived four horses being shot from beneath him during his participation in the war and it would be another year before the last of the Confederate soldiers would surrender and the Civil War would come to an end. In a "June 9th 1862" letter from "U.S. Hospital Philadelphia" written to his wife from Rodney R. Crowley it reads "Your husband requested me… to let you know that he is well + escaped the tremendous battle of Sunday June 1st unhurt. The 64th lost 186 killed wounded + missing + it is almost a miracle that George did not get hit. I am slightly wounded and on my way home. (signed)" We have 23 letters that George wrote home to his family during the war, starting with Dec 13th 1861 at Camp Fenton and ending with May 3rd 1863 at Falmouth.
There are 11 known images of him taken throughout his life, two of which he appears on horses, both tintypes. Another tintype is of him seated with Col. Daniel G. Bingham and an as yet unknown officer no doubt of the 64th. Three are Daguerreotypes, one of which is pencil signed as noted above, another in a locket that belonged to his wife, Anne and shows that of their youngest son, James Baldwin Taggart, who died in infancy, on the reverse side. Four are albumen prints, 2 of which were taken in sequence of one another standing in full uniform, another larger in an oval frame of him seated.
Predictions and Fantasies
In celebration of the 40th anniversary of the Century 21 Exposition, we look back in time to see what visitors to the World's Fair saw when they looked forward in time. Did their predictions turn out to be facts of our 21st-century life or just a futuristic fantasy?
Prediction: Scientists will develop "new foods rich in protein" and tap "new, inexhaustible sources of food."
Fantasy: We don't have Soylent Green, but we do have tofu.
Prediction: Supersonic air travel will allow people to circumnavigate the world in minutes.
Fantasy: Around the globe in minutes? On an airplane? Little did they know. These days it takes at least three hours just to get from the airport's front door, through five security checkpoints and onto the plane. Air travel seems to be getting slower rather than faster.
Prediction: In the 21st century, we will have a variety of new transportation methods to get us from here to there - gyrocopters, air-cushioned trains that move 500 mph, air-cushioned cars and rocket belts "that enable a man to stride 30 feet."
Fantasy: Personally, we're grateful the whole "flying car" thing hasn't taken off. We can't even seem to get it right on the ground yet. [Perhaps the Segway aka "Ginger" will fulfill some of this prediction in the near future?]
Prediction: "Most of us will use rapid transit jet-propelled monorail systems," announced the official World's Fair souvenir program.
Fantasy: Bah ha ha ha! Ooooh ha ha ha! Whew! Sorry, but THAT is funny.
Prediction: "We'll work shorter hours. We'll have more time for art, sports and hobbies," claimed the souvenir program, which also predicted we'd only have to work 24 hours a week.
Fantasy: Lord, don't we wish. Who could have predicted that all the time-saving gadgets and gizmos of the future would actually make it so we had to work longer hours - just so we could afford all those time-saving gadgets and gizmos.
Prediction: "Men living today will land on the moon."
Fact: 20 July 1969, men landed on the moon, planted a flag and pretty much called it good. We predict that by the year 2042 several suburban neighborhoods, a gated community, three strip malls and at least five Starbucks coffee shops will have sprung up on the moon.
Prediction: The "home of tomorrow" will be "a castle of ease, convenience and relaxation." The kitchen will be "a miracle of push-button efficiency" with "a cool-wall pantry, push-button electric sink, electronic bakery drawer, clothes conditioning closet." It will have a private heliport as well as an indoor swimming pool and garden. It will rotate to take advantage of the sun and will feature wall-to-wall television.
Fantasy (for most of us): We're pretty sure Bill Gates' crib looks a lot like this. And maybe Puff Daddy's ... er ... P Diddy's place. But the only "miracle of push-button efficiency" our home has is a little thing called a microwave. Ahh, the future. It sure is amazing.
Prediction: Home computers will be used for "record-keeping, shopping and check-writing."
Fact: Mostly we use our home computers for playing games, surfing the Internet and sending e-mail, but we'll give them a point for hitting close to the mark.
Prediction: We'll be able to watch movies immediately after they're filmed.
Fact: Hello, digital video.
Prediction: We'll have push-button phones, cordless telephones, and phones that will let you see the person you're talking to.
Fact: (mostly) The first commercial touch-tone phones were previewed at the World's Fair and went on, as we all know, to great success. Same goes for cordless telephones. Video telephones, however, are another matter. Thanks to the Internet, people can talk to each other and look at each other - if they have the appropriate camera and enough bandwidth. Still, most of us don't want the person on the other end of the line to see us when we're talking on the phone. After all, that's the beauty of the telephone - you could be sitting there in your skivvies with two days of stubble on your face and a stain on your shirt and the person on the other end of the line wouldn't have a clue. And we'd like to keep it that way.
Prediction: The school of tomorrow will have "walls made of jets of air, its tables standing on invisible legs, its floating canvas roof controlled to catch the sun. Memory-retention machines whir in the background. Television screens mirror the day's lessons."
Fantasy: Walls made of air? How about concrete walls, barred windows and doors fitted with metal detectors? Now that's a 21st-century classroom.
Winda Benedetti is a reporter for the Seattle Post-Intelligencer and can be reached at windabenedetti@seattlepi.com
Source: Seattle Post-Intelligencer Thursday 18 April 2002
Perhaps 1900's Predictions Came Closer?
Modern Christmas: A Prediction from 1900 of Christmas Day 100 Years Hence
Christmas day in the year 2000 dawned bright and clear over Chicago, but comparatively few people were interested in it at that early stage. Santa Claus and St Nicholas had been myths for 75 years, and the ravages of the past had stripped the north woods of their evergreens. Reindeer were extinct and the furry robes their hides once made were now found only in museums of natural history.
So Chicago slept - slept until sun reflected in frosty window panes and white snow on roofs and in streets and lawns was streaked by long, dazzling shafts of light. Children had to be awakened for breakfast and there wasn't a sock or a stocking hung in all of Chicago. Changes had occurred in Chicago in 100 years - changes in keeping with the material transformation that had made it a city of four million people and a seaport open to shipping all over the world.
Grandfathers and grandmothers could recall a time when Christmas was different than at the far end of the 20th century. Some, indeed, were old enough to remember how they had searched downtown shops and had crowded and fought and jammed through heavy storm doors to the counters, where hundreds of others scrambled for goods hauled down by weary clerks. By the year 2000 there was a disaffection for Christmas customs - the spirit of Christmas was lost. It had degenerated into a season for trampling down 1,000 fellow-beings in order to give the trophies of the fight to a dozen. As means of communication grew, man’s circle of acquaintance enlarged until gift-giving became too expensive. First came ethical protests against the juvenile fiction of Santa Claus/Kris Kringle/St Nick. Lovers of forests had next protested against destruction of evergreens. Society had long before ceased to give wedding presents - it soon became vulgar to give presents to any acquaintances - only the children in the family were remembered. Finally, once mechanical toys became so intricate and so nicely adjusted that machinists had to be employed for weeks after Christmas to keep them going, even the young were forced to drop holiday expectations.
Santa Claus Forgotten
Santa Claus was only a memory as were the pine forests of the North which had passed into fertile fields. A new spirit revivified religious feasts and the season of Christmas became the thing it should be. Church creeds were as dead as was Santa Claus, existing only in a glass case in the Public Library - though school children could repeat the Declaration of Independence from end to end. But social conditions had been revolutionised. These conditions began to change when the state began to acknowledge its responsibility toward all its citizens, when it began to realise that poverty and crime were only the surface marks of a diseased social body, when it began treating criminals as it had been treating the diseased and the insane. Schools of correction took the places of prisons, asylums took the place of penitentiaries. With the abolition of the death penalty for certain crimes, the protection of society as the object of criminal law had been accentuated until the burden of proving innocence was put upon the wrong-doer. Courts called upon men to show cause why they should not be committed for reformation or to life confinement in an asylum. This cleared the city of its pest spots, physical and social. Vagrancy was a crime, so the opportunity to work was given to all.
As a result, there were no "Christmas" dinners in public institutions - every day food served was of a character to please palates and satisfy the body’s needs. The state, acknowledging itself as the keeper of all "wards of society", cared for them and dismissed sentiment; there were no political ends for it to serve. At all institutions the largest liberty compatible with public safety was allowed - on all days.
Only One Day’s Rest
Schools closed for Christmas for one day only, as was natural. Money had ceased to be the end toward which all people moved; with opportunity gone for the hasty piling up of millions, all of society now looked to economize. The loss of many days in closed schools for silly holidays was intolerable, financially and ethically; in the hearts of most of the children was the feeling that one day was a sufficient sacrifice.
That Christmas morning, large numbers of schoolchildren went to the Coliseum to hear Fernando Jones lecture on old-time Christmas as he knew it at the end of the 19th century. He told of the time when Christmas snow in Chicago was so black and grimy that one could scarcely see a shadow on it. He told of boats that used to come in from Michigan loaded with Christmas trees, and how they used to stick on the tunnels that were just underneath the bed of the old river. The children were especially pleased when Mr Jones told how men used to stand on the sidewalks downtown for days before Christmas winding up birds, elephants, camels and beetles and then letting them run around in circles under the feet of the people, who were expected to buy them for children’s Christmas presents.
But, if the children were delighted with Mr Jones’ description of these curious mechanical toys, they were serious enough when he touched upon the "Christmas face" at the latter part of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. This "face" Mr Jones described as being almost indescribable. He said that it was partly sad, pathetic, appalling, stern and vicious mixed together. He said that a woman, for instance, looking this way at any other season of the year would have half a straight lane made for her through the most crowded street. But just before the Christmas holiday, 9/10ths of grown people began to look that way - at these times they seemed to become all elbows, packages, and set chins. Many a time he had seen men and women so loaded down with packages for Christmas giving that they could hardly see over them, but that, in spite of this, they would start through one of the great storm doors of a department store just behind other groups laden in the same way. Sometimes one of these doors would fly shut, breaking delicate articles and almost knocking the breath out of the owner.
Visit to the Museum
After the lecture, at the suggestion of Mr Jones, hundreds of children went to the Chicago Museum of Christmas Antiquities where they saw many queer mechanical toys. Most of them were too rusted and disabled to run, but museum attendants explained their mechanisms. In the museum was a fine representation of a Santa Claus, clothed in real fur. The reindeer, however, were artificial creations, though the plush skins were said to be excellent imitations of real animals’ coats.
On the morning of Christmas day the small parks of Chicago were great attractions for people. With the perfection of combustion for coal in 1935 and the previous perfecting of insulation for electric wires, the heating, lighting, and motive powers of the fluid in Chicago passed into control of the city. Central distributing plants had been established at intervals all over the city, the site of the plants being the centres of the small parks. Each of the 100 parks was a conservatory, enclosed in by unbreakable glass, into which waste heat energy of the plants was distributed. In each of these parks beauty and utility combined and gardening and fruit culture were paramount. Some parks had an area of 10 acres or more and these became "kitchen gardens" for wide neighborhoods. Such households as chose to do so drew upon these parks’ supplies, presenting coupon books as authority for it. On Christmas and Thanksgiving days especially these gardens would be thronged, special effort having been made to meet the occasions.
On this particular Christmas morning more than the usual number of patrons crowded in because it had recently become popular for citizens to volunteer and work in these public gardens under supervision of head gardeners. To some extent, this form of exercise had displaced golf, though that game was still popular and was played indoors on the Winter Palace links on the north shore.
Utilization of Art
Adaptation of public parks to the needs of public gardening had come about in urban areas and electric transit - noiseless, dustless, and giving a service of 80 miles an hour - had made suburbs of territory as far as 55 miles away. The lines of the old downtown district had virtually disappeared. The "skyscraper" was replaced by lower, more attractive buildings. With time to live and place to live assured to the citizen, he had begun to ask for more. With the scramble for wealth no longer his chief incentive he needed something more than the utilitarian. Art came; cities had changed.
The passing of the horse, the attainment of perfect combustion for coal, and the education of the people in cleanliness and sanitation had made Chicago clean. Rational dress made out-of-doors in all weather an attraction, and sidewalks and pavements of almost indestructible material were further inviting to pedestrians, to drivers of the swift noiseless vehicles, and even to passengers in the underground trains, whisked along at lightning speed by the forces of compressed air.
As part of the great chain of streets, avenues and the boulevards in Chicago, wide roads, smooth and well-kept, radiated north, west and south, reaching out to 100 towns. Cars operated on compressed air and ran on rubber-rimmed wheels. This had put the country more than ever in touch with the city, socially and economically, and thousands of citizens spent the day in he country, while thousands of country people thronged the churches, theatres, libraries and museums of the city.
In general, however, citizens of Chicago living at home spent the day at home. Living had become rational before the coming of rational Christmas; home was becoming the thing it should be. Long before this, apartments had been abandoned. They had served their purpose in the times when the activities of the new city did not allow a man of ordinary means to shoulder the responsibilities of a home. But rapid transit had made distances immaterial, and ground room had become a necessity instead of a luxury. Home became a place in which children were expected to be born, and in which one's children’s children might be expected to play.
Homekeeping Made Easy
Public utilities had grown until homekeeping was easy. Light, heat, and power were available to every household - electric "plugs" allowed power to be drawn from the municipal plant. Electricity heated water and turned the family washing machines, sewing machines, floor sweepers and dusters. It lighted the house, heated it in winter, and drove machinery for cooling it in summer. It ran the lawn mower and the snow sweeper and did service in a hundred ways.
By this means Christmas dinner, once was eaten at restaurants and hotels as a labor-saving and cheaper method, became a pleasure to scientific cooks. Recognition that the art of living was in close relation to the art of cooking and of keeping clean, domestic labor had taken on a new dignity. It was labor no longer. Stripped of drudgery, it became art. Foods long ago had been correlated, with reference to the proper distribution of nutritive elements. Purity in manufactured foods had become imperative, for the reason that every housekeeper had an elementary knowledge of chemistry.
Thus, while Christmas dinner had become easy because of domestic equipments, it was doubly easy to serve because of the standard dishes that had been added to the 19th century list of milk, eggs, butter, and cheese.
In general, the observance of the day in Chicago was quiet. Only 15 arrests were made by the police in all the metropolitan district and most of these were for minor offenses.
Source: Chicago Sunday Tribune 23 December 1900
See also: What Was Life Like a Century Ago? - A 3-minute call from Denver to New York City cost $11. There were 8,000 cars in the US and 144 miles of paved roads. The population of Las Vegas, Nevada was 30...
Prediction: Scientists will develop "new foods rich in protein" and tap "new, inexhaustible sources of food."
Fantasy: We don't have Soylent Green, but we do have tofu.
Prediction: Supersonic air travel will allow people to circumnavigate the world in minutes.
Fantasy: Around the globe in minutes? On an airplane? Little did they know. These days it takes at least three hours just to get from the airport's front door, through five security checkpoints and onto the plane. Air travel seems to be getting slower rather than faster.
Prediction: In the 21st century, we will have a variety of new transportation methods to get us from here to there - gyrocopters, air-cushioned trains that move 500 mph, air-cushioned cars and rocket belts "that enable a man to stride 30 feet."
Fantasy: Personally, we're grateful the whole "flying car" thing hasn't taken off. We can't even seem to get it right on the ground yet. [Perhaps the Segway aka "Ginger" will fulfill some of this prediction in the near future?]
Prediction: "Most of us will use rapid transit jet-propelled monorail systems," announced the official World's Fair souvenir program.
Fantasy: Bah ha ha ha! Ooooh ha ha ha! Whew! Sorry, but THAT is funny.
Prediction: "We'll work shorter hours. We'll have more time for art, sports and hobbies," claimed the souvenir program, which also predicted we'd only have to work 24 hours a week.
Fantasy: Lord, don't we wish. Who could have predicted that all the time-saving gadgets and gizmos of the future would actually make it so we had to work longer hours - just so we could afford all those time-saving gadgets and gizmos.
Prediction: "Men living today will land on the moon."
Fact: 20 July 1969, men landed on the moon, planted a flag and pretty much called it good. We predict that by the year 2042 several suburban neighborhoods, a gated community, three strip malls and at least five Starbucks coffee shops will have sprung up on the moon.
Prediction: The "home of tomorrow" will be "a castle of ease, convenience and relaxation." The kitchen will be "a miracle of push-button efficiency" with "a cool-wall pantry, push-button electric sink, electronic bakery drawer, clothes conditioning closet." It will have a private heliport as well as an indoor swimming pool and garden. It will rotate to take advantage of the sun and will feature wall-to-wall television.
Fantasy (for most of us): We're pretty sure Bill Gates' crib looks a lot like this. And maybe Puff Daddy's ... er ... P Diddy's place. But the only "miracle of push-button efficiency" our home has is a little thing called a microwave. Ahh, the future. It sure is amazing.
Prediction: Home computers will be used for "record-keeping, shopping and check-writing."
Fact: Mostly we use our home computers for playing games, surfing the Internet and sending e-mail, but we'll give them a point for hitting close to the mark.
Prediction: We'll be able to watch movies immediately after they're filmed.
Fact: Hello, digital video.
Prediction: We'll have push-button phones, cordless telephones, and phones that will let you see the person you're talking to.
Fact: (mostly) The first commercial touch-tone phones were previewed at the World's Fair and went on, as we all know, to great success. Same goes for cordless telephones. Video telephones, however, are another matter. Thanks to the Internet, people can talk to each other and look at each other - if they have the appropriate camera and enough bandwidth. Still, most of us don't want the person on the other end of the line to see us when we're talking on the phone. After all, that's the beauty of the telephone - you could be sitting there in your skivvies with two days of stubble on your face and a stain on your shirt and the person on the other end of the line wouldn't have a clue. And we'd like to keep it that way.
Prediction: The school of tomorrow will have "walls made of jets of air, its tables standing on invisible legs, its floating canvas roof controlled to catch the sun. Memory-retention machines whir in the background. Television screens mirror the day's lessons."
Fantasy: Walls made of air? How about concrete walls, barred windows and doors fitted with metal detectors? Now that's a 21st-century classroom.
Winda Benedetti is a reporter for the Seattle Post-Intelligencer and can be reached at windabenedetti@seattlepi.com
Source: Seattle Post-Intelligencer Thursday 18 April 2002
Perhaps 1900's Predictions Came Closer?
Modern Christmas: A Prediction from 1900 of Christmas Day 100 Years Hence
Christmas day in the year 2000 dawned bright and clear over Chicago, but comparatively few people were interested in it at that early stage. Santa Claus and St Nicholas had been myths for 75 years, and the ravages of the past had stripped the north woods of their evergreens. Reindeer were extinct and the furry robes their hides once made were now found only in museums of natural history.
So Chicago slept - slept until sun reflected in frosty window panes and white snow on roofs and in streets and lawns was streaked by long, dazzling shafts of light. Children had to be awakened for breakfast and there wasn't a sock or a stocking hung in all of Chicago. Changes had occurred in Chicago in 100 years - changes in keeping with the material transformation that had made it a city of four million people and a seaport open to shipping all over the world.
Grandfathers and grandmothers could recall a time when Christmas was different than at the far end of the 20th century. Some, indeed, were old enough to remember how they had searched downtown shops and had crowded and fought and jammed through heavy storm doors to the counters, where hundreds of others scrambled for goods hauled down by weary clerks. By the year 2000 there was a disaffection for Christmas customs - the spirit of Christmas was lost. It had degenerated into a season for trampling down 1,000 fellow-beings in order to give the trophies of the fight to a dozen. As means of communication grew, man’s circle of acquaintance enlarged until gift-giving became too expensive. First came ethical protests against the juvenile fiction of Santa Claus/Kris Kringle/St Nick. Lovers of forests had next protested against destruction of evergreens. Society had long before ceased to give wedding presents - it soon became vulgar to give presents to any acquaintances - only the children in the family were remembered. Finally, once mechanical toys became so intricate and so nicely adjusted that machinists had to be employed for weeks after Christmas to keep them going, even the young were forced to drop holiday expectations.
Santa Claus Forgotten
Santa Claus was only a memory as were the pine forests of the North which had passed into fertile fields. A new spirit revivified religious feasts and the season of Christmas became the thing it should be. Church creeds were as dead as was Santa Claus, existing only in a glass case in the Public Library - though school children could repeat the Declaration of Independence from end to end. But social conditions had been revolutionised. These conditions began to change when the state began to acknowledge its responsibility toward all its citizens, when it began to realise that poverty and crime were only the surface marks of a diseased social body, when it began treating criminals as it had been treating the diseased and the insane. Schools of correction took the places of prisons, asylums took the place of penitentiaries. With the abolition of the death penalty for certain crimes, the protection of society as the object of criminal law had been accentuated until the burden of proving innocence was put upon the wrong-doer. Courts called upon men to show cause why they should not be committed for reformation or to life confinement in an asylum. This cleared the city of its pest spots, physical and social. Vagrancy was a crime, so the opportunity to work was given to all.
As a result, there were no "Christmas" dinners in public institutions - every day food served was of a character to please palates and satisfy the body’s needs. The state, acknowledging itself as the keeper of all "wards of society", cared for them and dismissed sentiment; there were no political ends for it to serve. At all institutions the largest liberty compatible with public safety was allowed - on all days.
Only One Day’s Rest
Schools closed for Christmas for one day only, as was natural. Money had ceased to be the end toward which all people moved; with opportunity gone for the hasty piling up of millions, all of society now looked to economize. The loss of many days in closed schools for silly holidays was intolerable, financially and ethically; in the hearts of most of the children was the feeling that one day was a sufficient sacrifice.
That Christmas morning, large numbers of schoolchildren went to the Coliseum to hear Fernando Jones lecture on old-time Christmas as he knew it at the end of the 19th century. He told of the time when Christmas snow in Chicago was so black and grimy that one could scarcely see a shadow on it. He told of boats that used to come in from Michigan loaded with Christmas trees, and how they used to stick on the tunnels that were just underneath the bed of the old river. The children were especially pleased when Mr Jones told how men used to stand on the sidewalks downtown for days before Christmas winding up birds, elephants, camels and beetles and then letting them run around in circles under the feet of the people, who were expected to buy them for children’s Christmas presents.
But, if the children were delighted with Mr Jones’ description of these curious mechanical toys, they were serious enough when he touched upon the "Christmas face" at the latter part of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. This "face" Mr Jones described as being almost indescribable. He said that it was partly sad, pathetic, appalling, stern and vicious mixed together. He said that a woman, for instance, looking this way at any other season of the year would have half a straight lane made for her through the most crowded street. But just before the Christmas holiday, 9/10ths of grown people began to look that way - at these times they seemed to become all elbows, packages, and set chins. Many a time he had seen men and women so loaded down with packages for Christmas giving that they could hardly see over them, but that, in spite of this, they would start through one of the great storm doors of a department store just behind other groups laden in the same way. Sometimes one of these doors would fly shut, breaking delicate articles and almost knocking the breath out of the owner.
Visit to the Museum
After the lecture, at the suggestion of Mr Jones, hundreds of children went to the Chicago Museum of Christmas Antiquities where they saw many queer mechanical toys. Most of them were too rusted and disabled to run, but museum attendants explained their mechanisms. In the museum was a fine representation of a Santa Claus, clothed in real fur. The reindeer, however, were artificial creations, though the plush skins were said to be excellent imitations of real animals’ coats.
On the morning of Christmas day the small parks of Chicago were great attractions for people. With the perfection of combustion for coal in 1935 and the previous perfecting of insulation for electric wires, the heating, lighting, and motive powers of the fluid in Chicago passed into control of the city. Central distributing plants had been established at intervals all over the city, the site of the plants being the centres of the small parks. Each of the 100 parks was a conservatory, enclosed in by unbreakable glass, into which waste heat energy of the plants was distributed. In each of these parks beauty and utility combined and gardening and fruit culture were paramount. Some parks had an area of 10 acres or more and these became "kitchen gardens" for wide neighborhoods. Such households as chose to do so drew upon these parks’ supplies, presenting coupon books as authority for it. On Christmas and Thanksgiving days especially these gardens would be thronged, special effort having been made to meet the occasions.
On this particular Christmas morning more than the usual number of patrons crowded in because it had recently become popular for citizens to volunteer and work in these public gardens under supervision of head gardeners. To some extent, this form of exercise had displaced golf, though that game was still popular and was played indoors on the Winter Palace links on the north shore.
Utilization of Art
Adaptation of public parks to the needs of public gardening had come about in urban areas and electric transit - noiseless, dustless, and giving a service of 80 miles an hour - had made suburbs of territory as far as 55 miles away. The lines of the old downtown district had virtually disappeared. The "skyscraper" was replaced by lower, more attractive buildings. With time to live and place to live assured to the citizen, he had begun to ask for more. With the scramble for wealth no longer his chief incentive he needed something more than the utilitarian. Art came; cities had changed.
The passing of the horse, the attainment of perfect combustion for coal, and the education of the people in cleanliness and sanitation had made Chicago clean. Rational dress made out-of-doors in all weather an attraction, and sidewalks and pavements of almost indestructible material were further inviting to pedestrians, to drivers of the swift noiseless vehicles, and even to passengers in the underground trains, whisked along at lightning speed by the forces of compressed air.
As part of the great chain of streets, avenues and the boulevards in Chicago, wide roads, smooth and well-kept, radiated north, west and south, reaching out to 100 towns. Cars operated on compressed air and ran on rubber-rimmed wheels. This had put the country more than ever in touch with the city, socially and economically, and thousands of citizens spent the day in he country, while thousands of country people thronged the churches, theatres, libraries and museums of the city.
In general, however, citizens of Chicago living at home spent the day at home. Living had become rational before the coming of rational Christmas; home was becoming the thing it should be. Long before this, apartments had been abandoned. They had served their purpose in the times when the activities of the new city did not allow a man of ordinary means to shoulder the responsibilities of a home. But rapid transit had made distances immaterial, and ground room had become a necessity instead of a luxury. Home became a place in which children were expected to be born, and in which one's children’s children might be expected to play.
Homekeeping Made Easy
Public utilities had grown until homekeeping was easy. Light, heat, and power were available to every household - electric "plugs" allowed power to be drawn from the municipal plant. Electricity heated water and turned the family washing machines, sewing machines, floor sweepers and dusters. It lighted the house, heated it in winter, and drove machinery for cooling it in summer. It ran the lawn mower and the snow sweeper and did service in a hundred ways.
By this means Christmas dinner, once was eaten at restaurants and hotels as a labor-saving and cheaper method, became a pleasure to scientific cooks. Recognition that the art of living was in close relation to the art of cooking and of keeping clean, domestic labor had taken on a new dignity. It was labor no longer. Stripped of drudgery, it became art. Foods long ago had been correlated, with reference to the proper distribution of nutritive elements. Purity in manufactured foods had become imperative, for the reason that every housekeeper had an elementary knowledge of chemistry.
Thus, while Christmas dinner had become easy because of domestic equipments, it was doubly easy to serve because of the standard dishes that had been added to the 19th century list of milk, eggs, butter, and cheese.
In general, the observance of the day in Chicago was quiet. Only 15 arrests were made by the police in all the metropolitan district and most of these were for minor offenses.
Source: Chicago Sunday Tribune 23 December 1900
See also: What Was Life Like a Century Ago? - A 3-minute call from Denver to New York City cost $11. There were 8,000 cars in the US and 144 miles of paved roads. The population of Las Vegas, Nevada was 30...
What a Difference a Century Can Make:
A Century Ago - The Year Is 1901
The average life expectancy in the US was 47.
Only 14% of US homes had a bathtub.
Only 8% had a telephone. A 3-minute call from Denver to New York City cost $11.
There were 8,000 cars in the US and 144 miles of paved roads.
The maximum speed limit in most cities was 10 mph.
Alabama, Mississippi, Iowa, and Tennessee were each more heavily populated than California. With 1.4 million residents, California was the 21st most populous state.
The tallest structure in the world was the Eiffel Tower.
The average wage in the US was 22¢ an hour.
The average US worker made between $200 and $400 per year.
A competent accountant could expect to earn $2,000 per year, a dentist $2,500 per year, a veterinarian between $1,500 and $4,000 per year, and a mechanical engineer about $5,000 per year.
More than 95% of all births in the US took place at home.
About 90% of all US physicians had no college education. Instead, they attended medical schools, many of which were condemned in the press and by the government as "substandard".
Sugar cost 4¢ a pound. Eggs were 14¢ a dozen, and coffee cost 15¢ a pound.
Most women only washed their hair once a month and used borax or egg yolks for shampoo.
Canada passed a law prohibiting poor people from entering the country for any reason.
The five leading causes of death in the US were: Pneumonia and influenza, Tuberculosis, Diarrhea, Heart disease, and Stroke.
The American flag had 45 stars. Arizona, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Hawaii, and Alaska hadn't been admitted to the union yet.
The population of Las Vegas, Nevada was 30.
Crossword puzzles, canned beer, and iced tea hadn't been invented.
There was no Mother's Day or Father's Day.
One in 10 US adults couldn't read or write. Only 6% of all Americans had graduated from high school.
Marijuana, heroin, and morphine were all available over the counter at corner drugstores. According to one pharmacist, "Heroin clears the complexion, gives buoyancy to the mind, regulates the stomach and the bowels, and is, in fact, a perfect guardian of health."
The average life expectancy in the US was 47.
Only 14% of US homes had a bathtub.
Only 8% had a telephone. A 3-minute call from Denver to New York City cost $11.
There were 8,000 cars in the US and 144 miles of paved roads.
The maximum speed limit in most cities was 10 mph.
Alabama, Mississippi, Iowa, and Tennessee were each more heavily populated than California. With 1.4 million residents, California was the 21st most populous state.
The tallest structure in the world was the Eiffel Tower.
The average wage in the US was 22¢ an hour.
The average US worker made between $200 and $400 per year.
A competent accountant could expect to earn $2,000 per year, a dentist $2,500 per year, a veterinarian between $1,500 and $4,000 per year, and a mechanical engineer about $5,000 per year.
More than 95% of all births in the US took place at home.
About 90% of all US physicians had no college education. Instead, they attended medical schools, many of which were condemned in the press and by the government as "substandard".
Sugar cost 4¢ a pound. Eggs were 14¢ a dozen, and coffee cost 15¢ a pound.
Most women only washed their hair once a month and used borax or egg yolks for shampoo.
Canada passed a law prohibiting poor people from entering the country for any reason.
The five leading causes of death in the US were: Pneumonia and influenza, Tuberculosis, Diarrhea, Heart disease, and Stroke.
The American flag had 45 stars. Arizona, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Hawaii, and Alaska hadn't been admitted to the union yet.
The population of Las Vegas, Nevada was 30.
Crossword puzzles, canned beer, and iced tea hadn't been invented.
There was no Mother's Day or Father's Day.
One in 10 US adults couldn't read or write. Only 6% of all Americans had graduated from high school.
Marijuana, heroin, and morphine were all available over the counter at corner drugstores. According to one pharmacist, "Heroin clears the complexion, gives buoyancy to the mind, regulates the stomach and the bowels, and is, in fact, a perfect guardian of health."
Toxic Dates Time Line
The following time line was reproduced from the 2003 Deadly Dates Calendar with the permission of John Trestrail III, editor. For more information about this calendar or questions concerning reprinting please contact:
Mr. John Trestrail Phone: (616) 391-9099 E-mail: john.trestrail@spectrum-health.org
The Toxic Dates Time Line
B.C. 30 Suicide of Cleopatra, by the bite of an Asp (August 30, B.C. 30)
79 Death of Pliny the Elder, Mt. Vesuvius sulfurous cloud (August 25, 79)
1135 Birth of Moses Maimonides (March 30, 1135)
1216 Murder of England’s King John I, by Toad Toxins (October 19, 1216)
1431 Birth of Rodrio Borgia (Jan. 1, 1431)
1493 Birth of alchemist Paracelsus (Nov. 10, 1493)
1507 Death in battle of Cesare Borgia (March 12, 1507)
1519 Birth of poisoner Catherine de' Medici (April 13, 1519)
1541 Death of Paracelsus (September 24, 1541)
1542 Margaret Davie is the last poisoner boiled to death (March 17, 1542)
1589 Catherine de' Medici dies (Jan. 5, 1589)
1636 Birth of toxicologist Eberhard Gockel (June 13, 1636)
1670 Birth of Richard Mead, wrote first book in English on poisons (Aug. 11, 1670)
1676 Execution by beheading of poisoner the Marquise D’Aubrey (July 16, 1676)
1696 Duke Eberhard Ludwig bans the adding of lead to wine (March 10, 1696)
1742 Scientist Carl Scheele dies after inhaling HCN, which he had just discovered (Dec. 9, 1742)
1752 Mary Blandy is hanged for poisoning her father (April 5, 1752)
1770 Suicide of writer Thomas Chatterton, arsenic (August 24, 1770)
1783 Birth of François Magendie, discoverer of Emetine (Oct. 15, 1783)
1787 Birth of toxicologist Mathieu JB Orfila (April 24, 1787)
1789 Explorer John Ledyard dies in Cairo, Egypt, from nerve tonic OD (Jan. 10, 1789)
1791 Murder of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, arsenic; Vienna, Austria (Dec. 5, 1791)
1794 Birth of James Marsh, inventor of a test for arsenic (September 2, 1794)
1799 American patriot Patrick Henry dies of an OD of medicinal mercury (June 6, 1799)
Sir Humphrey Davy first describes the effects of “laughing gas” (Dec. 26, 1799)
1809 Mary Bateman, “The Yorkshire Witch,” is executed (March 20, 1809)
1817 Explorer John Franklin dies of lead poisoning (June 11, 1817)
1821 Murder of Napoleon I, arsenic; St. Helena (May 4, 1821)
1840 Orfila uses new Marsh Test for arsenic, in LaFarge trial; Tulle, France (September 14, 1840)
1856 “The Rugeley Poisoner,” William Palmer, MD, hanged; London, England (June 14, 1856)
1859 Poisoner William King, MD, hanged; Cobourg, Ontario (June 9, 1859)
1863 A. von Baeyer discovers barbiturates (names for the Fest of St. Barbara) (May 24, 1863)
Robert E. Lee, weakened by food poisoning, agrees to ill-fated Pickett’s Charge; Gettysburg, PA (July 3, 1863)
1865 Poisoner Edward Pritchard, MD, hanged; Scotland (July 28, 1865)
1869 Birth of Alice Hamilton, matriarch of American occupational medicine (Feb. 27, 1869)
1873 Mary Ann Cotton, poisoner of 15 victims, is hanged (March 24, 1873)
1878 Poisoner Lydia Sherman dies in Wethersfield prison (May 16, 1878)
1882 Poisoner George Lamson, MD, hanged, England (April 28, 1882)
1890 Birth of mystery writer Agatha Christie, Torquay, England (Sept. 15, 1890)
1892 Poisoner Etienne Deschamps hanged; New Orleans, LA (May 12, 1892)
“The Lambeth Poisoner,” Thomas Neill Cream, MD, hanged; England (Nov. 5, 1892)
1893 Poisoner Carlyle Harris is electrocuted at Sing Sing (May 8, 1893)
Union spy Pauline Cushamn dies of Opium OD (Dec. 2, 1893)
1894 Phisalex and Calmette discover anti-venins (Feb. 10, 1894)
1895 Poisoner Robert Buchanan, MD, electrocuted; Sing Sing, NY (July 2, 1895)
1896 Poisoner Herman W. Mudgett, creator of the “house of horror,” is hanged; Chicago (May 7, 1896)
“Cannonball” Crane dies of chloral hydrate OD (September 19, 1896)
1902 Poisoner May Jane Toppen sent to asylum for murder of 100 patients (June 23, 1902)
Death of novelist Emile Zola, from accidental carbon monoxide; Paris, France (Sept. 28, 1902)
1903 Severin Klosovski is executed for poisoning his wives (April 7, 1903)
1904 Dan Mahoney of the Cincinnati Reds dies from ingesting carbolic acid (Feb. 1, 1904)
1905 Poisoner Arthur Devereux hanged; Pentonville, England (Aug. 15, 1905)
1906 Birth of Albert Hoffman, isolator of psychedelic drugs (Jan. 11, 1906)
1907 Suicide of Chick Stahl, Boston Red Sox manager, carbolic acid (March 28, 1907)
Birth of Rachel Carson, author and “Mother of Environmental Movement” (May 27. 1907)
1909 Birth of Dr. Jay Arena, promoter of the “childproof cap” (March 3, 1909)
1910 Poisoner Hawley Harvey Crippen, MD, hanged; England (Nov. 23, 1910)
1915 Absinthe banned in France (March 16, 1915)
Suicide of poisoner “Mad Mr.” Meunter (July 6, 1915)
1916 Death of Romanian Prince Mercier, from poisoned candy dropped from airplanes (November 4, 1916)
1917 World War I:
U.S. accuses Germans of inoculating French citizens with TB (July 9, 1917)
Germans launch first sulphur mustard attack (July 17, 1917)
Disaster, ship Mont Blanc explodes with picric acid; Halifax, Nova Scotia (Dec. 7, 1917)
1920 Birth of LSD guru Timothy Leary (October 22, 1920)
1922 Poisoner Henri Desire Landru guillotined, France (Feb. 23, 1922)
Poisoner Herbert Rowse Armstrong hanged; Gloucester, England (May 31, 1922)
1924 Gee Jon is first criminal executed in U.S. by cyanide in the Gas Chamber (Feb. 28, 1924)
Death of writer Franz Kafka, from opium; Prague, Czechoslovakia (June 3, 1924)
1926 Gertrude Bell, “The Uncrowned Queen of Iraq,” commits suicide with sleeping meds (July 11, 1926)
Poisoner Petrus deBeer executed by hanging (July 30, 1926)
1927 Law — Caustic Poison Act passed to protect children from lye, USA (March 4, 1927)
1931 Silent movie star Art Acord commits suicide with cyanide (Jan. 4, 1931)
1932 Poisoner Daisy Louisa DeMelker hanged; Johannesburg, South Africa (Dec. 30, 1932)
1934 Poisoners (4 men) of Mike Malloy executed; New York (June 8, 1934)
Death of Scientist Marie Curie, radium poisoning (July 4, 1934)
1935 102 cane toads are captured in Hawaii, to be shipped to Australia (June 1, 1935)
Cane toads are released into Australia (August 18, 1935)
Chemical warfare agent, poison gas, used by Italians; Ethiopia (Oct. 10, 1935)
Actress Thelma Todd is found dead in garage from CO poisoning (Dec. 15, 1935)
1937 Poisoner Anna Marie Hahn electrocuted, Cincinnati, OH (June 2, 1937)
1938 Law - Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act passed, USA (June 25, 1938)
“Typhoid Mary” dies after 23 years of confinement (Nov. 11, 1938)
1939 Dr. Sigmund Freud is euthanized with morphine (September 23, 1939)
1940 Suicide of former welterweight champ “Kid McCoy,” from sleeping pills (April 18, 1940)
1941 Japanese use poison gas at Ichang, China, during World War II (Oct. 20, 1941)
1942 Suicide of novelist Stefan Zweig, with Veronal; Austria (Feb. 21, 1942)
1944 Overdose death from barbiturates of evangelist Aimee Semple McPherson (Sept. 27, 1944)
Suicide of Field Marshall Erwin Rommel, cyanide; Ulm, Germany (Oct. 14, 1944)
1945 Auschwitz liberated by Soviet Army (Jan. 27, 1945)
Suicide of Nazi leader Heinrich Himmler, with cyanide (May 23, 1945)
Bombing (atomic) of Hiroshima, Japan (August 6, 1945)
Bombing (atomic) of Nagasaki, Japan (August 9, 1945)
1946 Suicide of Nazi Hermann Göring with cyanide; Nuremberg, Germany (Oct. 7, 1946)
1948 Poisoner Sadamachi Hirasawa robs bank, cyanide, Tokyo, Japan (Jan. 26, 1948)
1951 Law — Delaney Committee starts Congressional investigation, USA (Oct. 26, 1951)
1952 Paul “Big Poison” Warner inducted into Baseball Hall of Fame, NY (July 19, 1952)
1954 Poisoner Christa Lehman gives E-605 (an OPI) to neighbours; Worms, Germany (Feb. 15, 1954)
Death of computer pioneer Alan Turing from cyanide (June 7, 1954)
1960 Law — Federal Hazardous Substance Labelling Act signed, USA (July 12, 1960)
1962 President Kennedy urges women to turn in their Thalidomide (Aug. 1, 1962)
Death of film star Marilyn Monroe from barbiturate OD; Los Angeles, CA (Aug. 5, 1962)
Dr. Frances Kelsey is awarded gold medal for preventing the Thalidomide disaster (August 17, 1962)
1963 Suicide of author Sylvia Plath, “The Bell Jar,” by natural gas (Feb. 11, 1963)
Death of football star “Big Daddy” Lipscombe from heroin OD (May 10, 1963)
1964 Suicide of actor Alan Ladd, sedatives and alcohol (Jan. 29, 1964)
1965 1st case of “Epping Jaundice” is seen, from contaminated bread in a truck (Feb. 5, 1965)
Actress Dorothy Dandridge is found dead from Tofranil OD (Sept. 8, 1965)
1966 Death of musician Bobby Fuller, from gasoline asphyxia. Foul play (July 18, 1966)
Death of comedian Lenny Bruce, from morphine OD; Los Angeles, CA (Aug. 3, 1966)
1967 Dr. Carl Coppolini is sentenced to life in prison for poisoning wife with succinyl chlorine (April 29, 1967)
Lloyd “Little Poison” Warner inducted into Baseball' Hall of Fame, NY (July 22, 1967)
Suicide of Beatles’ manager Brian Epstein, sleeping pills (August 27, 1967)
1968 Suicide of actor Nick Adams, with sedatives (Feb. 7, 1968)
Antidote — FDA approves Desferal for iron poisoning (April 1, 1968)
1970 Death of rock star Jimi Hendrix, from drug OD; London, England (Sept. 18, 1970)
Poison Prevention Act is signed (Dec. 31, 1970)
1971 Birth of poison symbol "Mr. Yuk®" (Jan. 23, 1971)
Suicide of actress Pier Angeli, with barbiturates (September 11, 1971)
1972 Suicide of actor George Sanders, Nembutal (April 26, 1972)
Clean Water Act is passed (October 18, 1972)
1973 Death of actor/martial arts expert, Bruce Lee, equagesic allergy (July 20, 1973)
1974 Poisoner Ronald O’Bryan, “The Candy Man,” Cyanide Halloween candy; Pasadena, TX (October 31, 1974)
1975 Death of mystery writer Agatha Christie, Devon, England (Jan. 12, 1975)
1976 Disaster, Dioxin; Seveso, Italy (July 10, 1976)
Death of actress Anissa Jones (“Buffy” on Family Affair), barbiturate OD (August 28, 1976)
Toxic Substances Control Act (TOSCA), signed by President Gerald Ford (Oct. 11, 1976)
1978 President Jimmy Carter declares emergency at Love Canal, New York (Aug. 7, 1978)
Suicide of actor Charles Boyer, Seconal (August 26, 1978)
Assassination of Georgi Markov, Ricin; London, England (September 7, 1978)
Suicide of 913 People's Temple members, cyanide; Jonestown, Guyana (Nov. 18, 1978)
1979 Death of punk-rock singer Sid Vicious, from heroin OD, New York, NY (Feb. 2, 1979)
Anthrax escapes from Sverdlovsk military facility (April 2, 1979)
Thurman Munson dies of cyanide and carbon monoxide poisoning while trapped in his plane (August 2, 1979)
1980 Drummer John Bonham asphyxiates after 40 shots of vodka (Sept. 25, 1980)
Death of actress Rachel Roberts, from barbiturate OD (Nov. 26, 1980)
Law — Superfund created by President Carter with $1.6 billion, USA (Dec. 12, 1980)
Death of singer Tim Harden from heroin OD (Dec. 29, 1980)
1981 Jaime Vanero Garcia becomes first victim of “rapeseed oil epidemic” (May 1, 1981)
1982 Death of Blues singer Tommy Tucker (Jan. 22, 1982)
Actor John Belushi dies of “speedball” overdose, after 20 injections within 24 hours (March 5, 1982)
1984 Poisoner Ronald C. O’Bryan executed by lethal injection; TX (March 31, 1984)
Robert Diaz is convicted of murdering patients with Lidocaine (March 29, 1984)
1986 Phil Lynott of “Thin Lizzy,” dies from heroin OD (Feb. 4, 1986)
Death of imprisoned Vatican financial advisor Michele Sindona, with cyanide (March 22, 1986)
Antidote — FDA approves Digibind® for digoxin poisoning (April 22, 1986)
Bruce Nickell is poisoned with cyanide, by his wife Stella (June 5, 1986)
CO2 cloud escapes from Lake Nyos, Cameroon, killing 1,000 people (Aug. 21, 1986)
Schweizerhalle environmental disaster occurs, Switzerland (Nov. 1, 1986)
1987 Death of singer Paul Butterfield, from drug OD (May 5, 1987)
Stella Nickel is sentenced to 90 years in prison for murdering her husband with cyanide (May 9, 1987)
1st Toxicology Quiz Bowl held, Vancouver, Canada (West 190, East 115) (Oct. 1, 1987)
Arrest of nurse Richard Angelo for murder of patients with muscle relaxants (Nov. 15, 1987)
1988 Graffiti artist Jean Michel Basquiat is found dead of cocaine and heroin OD (Aug. 12, 1988)
1989 Suicide of activist Abbie Hoffman, by barbiturates and ethanol (April 12, 1989)
CDC receives first reports of EMS syndrome (Nov. 8, 1989)
1990 Dr. Jack Kavorkian assists his first suicide patient (June 4, 1990)
Ban by EPA of mercury in paint (August 20, 1990)
Deaths of religious cult members from CO; Tijuana, Mexico (Dec. 13, 1990)
1991 Antidote — FDA approves use of Succimer® for lead poisoning (Jan. 30, 1991)
Poisoner George Trepal found guilty of murder; Barlow, FL. (March 6, 1991)
19,500 gallons of Vapam falls into the Sacramento River (July 14, 1991)
1st meeting of the Toxicological History Society held, Toronto, Canada (Oct. 4, 1991)
Antidote — FDA approves Flumazenil for benzodiazepine poisoning (Dec. 20, 1991)
1992 Report published of first poisonous bird, “Hooded Pitohui,” Science (Oct. 30, 1992)
1993 Jack-in-the-Box restaurant recalls hamburgers, as E. Coli affects 230 patrons (Jan. 18, 1993)
Suicide of author Fletcher Knebel, “The Seven Days in May,” sleeping pills (Feb. 26, 1993)
Nuclear accident at Tomsk-7, Siberia (April 6, 1993)
Death of veteran defensive back David Weymer, from cocaine OD (April 30, 1993)
248 boa constrictors overdose on cocaine, while being used as “body packers” (June 22, 1993)
1994 Fumes from patient Gloria Ramirez cause collapse of ER personnel (Feb. 19, 1994)
Aum Shunrikyo used Sarin in Matsumoto, Japan, killing 7 citizens (June 27, 1994)
Suicide of Pulitzer Prize photo-journalist Kevin Carter, from CO (July 27, 1994)
53 members of the “Order of the Solar Temple” commit suicide in Canada and Switzerland (October 5, 1994)
Award-winning columnist Betsy Lehman dies from OD of Cytoxan (Dec. 3, 1994)
1995 Singer Phyllis Hyman commits suicide with sleeping pills (June 30, 1995)
Death of Louis Gdalman, RPh, founder of 1st US Poison Center (Aug. 29, 1995)
British astrologer Patric Walker dies from food poisoning (Oct. 8, 1995)
Shannon Hoon of “Blind Melon” dies of drug OD (Oct. 21, 1995)
1996 Don Simpson, producer of Flash Dance and Top Gun, overdoses on “speed” and wine (Jan. 19, 1996)
Actress Margaux Hemingway is found dead of phenobarbital OD (July 1, 1996)
Jonathan Melvoin, of “Smashing Pumpkins,” dies of heroin OD (July 13, 1996)
1997 39 UFO cult member commit suicide with phenobarbital and vodka (March 26, 1997)
Dartmouth dean Karen Watterhahn dies after spilling Dimethyl Mercury in a laboratory (June 12, 1997)
Antizol® (fomepizole) Injection is approved by the FDA (Dec. 4, 1997)
Comedian Chris Farley is found dead from morphine and cocaine OD (Dec. 18, 1997)
1998 Milli Vanilli “singer” Ro Pilatus dies of drug and alcohol OD (April 3, 1998)
Ikuro Hayushi, head of Aum Shinrikyo Hospital, sentenced for role in Sarin deaths (May 26, 1998)
Porn star Trinity Loren dies from drug OD (October 24, 1998)
1999 Li Yuhui is sentenced to death for giving cyanide to 5 woman claiming it a health product (March 23, 1999)
Dallas Cowboy tackle Mark Tuinei dies of XTC and heroin OD (May 6, 1999)
2000 Dam at Bain Mare gold mine, Romania spills 100 tons of cyanide in Danube and Tisza rivers (Jan. 20, 2000)
Dr. Harold Shipman convicted for 15 murders (believed to have poisoned over 300 patients) (Jan. 31, 2000)
President Clinton signs “Poison Center Enhancement and Awareness Act” (Feb. 25, 2000)
Death of Alan Done, MD, creator of the “Done nomogram” (March 18, 2000)
First cases of largest North American E. Coli outbreak begins to appear in Walkerton, Ontario (May 17, 2000)
Dr. Michael Swango is sentenced to life without parole for poisoning patients (September 6, 2000)
2002 Fest of “St. John the Apostle,” patron saint of poison specialists (Dec. 27, 2002)
Mr. John Trestrail Phone: (616) 391-9099 E-mail: john.trestrail@spectrum-health.org
The Toxic Dates Time Line
B.C. 30 Suicide of Cleopatra, by the bite of an Asp (August 30, B.C. 30)
79 Death of Pliny the Elder, Mt. Vesuvius sulfurous cloud (August 25, 79)
1135 Birth of Moses Maimonides (March 30, 1135)
1216 Murder of England’s King John I, by Toad Toxins (October 19, 1216)
1431 Birth of Rodrio Borgia (Jan. 1, 1431)
1493 Birth of alchemist Paracelsus (Nov. 10, 1493)
1507 Death in battle of Cesare Borgia (March 12, 1507)
1519 Birth of poisoner Catherine de' Medici (April 13, 1519)
1541 Death of Paracelsus (September 24, 1541)
1542 Margaret Davie is the last poisoner boiled to death (March 17, 1542)
1589 Catherine de' Medici dies (Jan. 5, 1589)
1636 Birth of toxicologist Eberhard Gockel (June 13, 1636)
1670 Birth of Richard Mead, wrote first book in English on poisons (Aug. 11, 1670)
1676 Execution by beheading of poisoner the Marquise D’Aubrey (July 16, 1676)
1696 Duke Eberhard Ludwig bans the adding of lead to wine (March 10, 1696)
1742 Scientist Carl Scheele dies after inhaling HCN, which he had just discovered (Dec. 9, 1742)
1752 Mary Blandy is hanged for poisoning her father (April 5, 1752)
1770 Suicide of writer Thomas Chatterton, arsenic (August 24, 1770)
1783 Birth of François Magendie, discoverer of Emetine (Oct. 15, 1783)
1787 Birth of toxicologist Mathieu JB Orfila (April 24, 1787)
1789 Explorer John Ledyard dies in Cairo, Egypt, from nerve tonic OD (Jan. 10, 1789)
1791 Murder of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, arsenic; Vienna, Austria (Dec. 5, 1791)
1794 Birth of James Marsh, inventor of a test for arsenic (September 2, 1794)
1799 American patriot Patrick Henry dies of an OD of medicinal mercury (June 6, 1799)
Sir Humphrey Davy first describes the effects of “laughing gas” (Dec. 26, 1799)
1809 Mary Bateman, “The Yorkshire Witch,” is executed (March 20, 1809)
1817 Explorer John Franklin dies of lead poisoning (June 11, 1817)
1821 Murder of Napoleon I, arsenic; St. Helena (May 4, 1821)
1840 Orfila uses new Marsh Test for arsenic, in LaFarge trial; Tulle, France (September 14, 1840)
1856 “The Rugeley Poisoner,” William Palmer, MD, hanged; London, England (June 14, 1856)
1859 Poisoner William King, MD, hanged; Cobourg, Ontario (June 9, 1859)
1863 A. von Baeyer discovers barbiturates (names for the Fest of St. Barbara) (May 24, 1863)
Robert E. Lee, weakened by food poisoning, agrees to ill-fated Pickett’s Charge; Gettysburg, PA (July 3, 1863)
1865 Poisoner Edward Pritchard, MD, hanged; Scotland (July 28, 1865)
1869 Birth of Alice Hamilton, matriarch of American occupational medicine (Feb. 27, 1869)
1873 Mary Ann Cotton, poisoner of 15 victims, is hanged (March 24, 1873)
1878 Poisoner Lydia Sherman dies in Wethersfield prison (May 16, 1878)
1882 Poisoner George Lamson, MD, hanged, England (April 28, 1882)
1890 Birth of mystery writer Agatha Christie, Torquay, England (Sept. 15, 1890)
1892 Poisoner Etienne Deschamps hanged; New Orleans, LA (May 12, 1892)
“The Lambeth Poisoner,” Thomas Neill Cream, MD, hanged; England (Nov. 5, 1892)
1893 Poisoner Carlyle Harris is electrocuted at Sing Sing (May 8, 1893)
Union spy Pauline Cushamn dies of Opium OD (Dec. 2, 1893)
1894 Phisalex and Calmette discover anti-venins (Feb. 10, 1894)
1895 Poisoner Robert Buchanan, MD, electrocuted; Sing Sing, NY (July 2, 1895)
1896 Poisoner Herman W. Mudgett, creator of the “house of horror,” is hanged; Chicago (May 7, 1896)
“Cannonball” Crane dies of chloral hydrate OD (September 19, 1896)
1902 Poisoner May Jane Toppen sent to asylum for murder of 100 patients (June 23, 1902)
Death of novelist Emile Zola, from accidental carbon monoxide; Paris, France (Sept. 28, 1902)
1903 Severin Klosovski is executed for poisoning his wives (April 7, 1903)
1904 Dan Mahoney of the Cincinnati Reds dies from ingesting carbolic acid (Feb. 1, 1904)
1905 Poisoner Arthur Devereux hanged; Pentonville, England (Aug. 15, 1905)
1906 Birth of Albert Hoffman, isolator of psychedelic drugs (Jan. 11, 1906)
1907 Suicide of Chick Stahl, Boston Red Sox manager, carbolic acid (March 28, 1907)
Birth of Rachel Carson, author and “Mother of Environmental Movement” (May 27. 1907)
1909 Birth of Dr. Jay Arena, promoter of the “childproof cap” (March 3, 1909)
1910 Poisoner Hawley Harvey Crippen, MD, hanged; England (Nov. 23, 1910)
1915 Absinthe banned in France (March 16, 1915)
Suicide of poisoner “Mad Mr.” Meunter (July 6, 1915)
1916 Death of Romanian Prince Mercier, from poisoned candy dropped from airplanes (November 4, 1916)
1917 World War I:
U.S. accuses Germans of inoculating French citizens with TB (July 9, 1917)
Germans launch first sulphur mustard attack (July 17, 1917)
Disaster, ship Mont Blanc explodes with picric acid; Halifax, Nova Scotia (Dec. 7, 1917)
1920 Birth of LSD guru Timothy Leary (October 22, 1920)
1922 Poisoner Henri Desire Landru guillotined, France (Feb. 23, 1922)
Poisoner Herbert Rowse Armstrong hanged; Gloucester, England (May 31, 1922)
1924 Gee Jon is first criminal executed in U.S. by cyanide in the Gas Chamber (Feb. 28, 1924)
Death of writer Franz Kafka, from opium; Prague, Czechoslovakia (June 3, 1924)
1926 Gertrude Bell, “The Uncrowned Queen of Iraq,” commits suicide with sleeping meds (July 11, 1926)
Poisoner Petrus deBeer executed by hanging (July 30, 1926)
1927 Law — Caustic Poison Act passed to protect children from lye, USA (March 4, 1927)
1931 Silent movie star Art Acord commits suicide with cyanide (Jan. 4, 1931)
1932 Poisoner Daisy Louisa DeMelker hanged; Johannesburg, South Africa (Dec. 30, 1932)
1934 Poisoners (4 men) of Mike Malloy executed; New York (June 8, 1934)
Death of Scientist Marie Curie, radium poisoning (July 4, 1934)
1935 102 cane toads are captured in Hawaii, to be shipped to Australia (June 1, 1935)
Cane toads are released into Australia (August 18, 1935)
Chemical warfare agent, poison gas, used by Italians; Ethiopia (Oct. 10, 1935)
Actress Thelma Todd is found dead in garage from CO poisoning (Dec. 15, 1935)
1937 Poisoner Anna Marie Hahn electrocuted, Cincinnati, OH (June 2, 1937)
1938 Law - Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act passed, USA (June 25, 1938)
“Typhoid Mary” dies after 23 years of confinement (Nov. 11, 1938)
1939 Dr. Sigmund Freud is euthanized with morphine (September 23, 1939)
1940 Suicide of former welterweight champ “Kid McCoy,” from sleeping pills (April 18, 1940)
1941 Japanese use poison gas at Ichang, China, during World War II (Oct. 20, 1941)
1942 Suicide of novelist Stefan Zweig, with Veronal; Austria (Feb. 21, 1942)
1944 Overdose death from barbiturates of evangelist Aimee Semple McPherson (Sept. 27, 1944)
Suicide of Field Marshall Erwin Rommel, cyanide; Ulm, Germany (Oct. 14, 1944)
1945 Auschwitz liberated by Soviet Army (Jan. 27, 1945)
Suicide of Nazi leader Heinrich Himmler, with cyanide (May 23, 1945)
Bombing (atomic) of Hiroshima, Japan (August 6, 1945)
Bombing (atomic) of Nagasaki, Japan (August 9, 1945)
1946 Suicide of Nazi Hermann Göring with cyanide; Nuremberg, Germany (Oct. 7, 1946)
1948 Poisoner Sadamachi Hirasawa robs bank, cyanide, Tokyo, Japan (Jan. 26, 1948)
1951 Law — Delaney Committee starts Congressional investigation, USA (Oct. 26, 1951)
1952 Paul “Big Poison” Warner inducted into Baseball Hall of Fame, NY (July 19, 1952)
1954 Poisoner Christa Lehman gives E-605 (an OPI) to neighbours; Worms, Germany (Feb. 15, 1954)
Death of computer pioneer Alan Turing from cyanide (June 7, 1954)
1960 Law — Federal Hazardous Substance Labelling Act signed, USA (July 12, 1960)
1962 President Kennedy urges women to turn in their Thalidomide (Aug. 1, 1962)
Death of film star Marilyn Monroe from barbiturate OD; Los Angeles, CA (Aug. 5, 1962)
Dr. Frances Kelsey is awarded gold medal for preventing the Thalidomide disaster (August 17, 1962)
1963 Suicide of author Sylvia Plath, “The Bell Jar,” by natural gas (Feb. 11, 1963)
Death of football star “Big Daddy” Lipscombe from heroin OD (May 10, 1963)
1964 Suicide of actor Alan Ladd, sedatives and alcohol (Jan. 29, 1964)
1965 1st case of “Epping Jaundice” is seen, from contaminated bread in a truck (Feb. 5, 1965)
Actress Dorothy Dandridge is found dead from Tofranil OD (Sept. 8, 1965)
1966 Death of musician Bobby Fuller, from gasoline asphyxia. Foul play (July 18, 1966)
Death of comedian Lenny Bruce, from morphine OD; Los Angeles, CA (Aug. 3, 1966)
1967 Dr. Carl Coppolini is sentenced to life in prison for poisoning wife with succinyl chlorine (April 29, 1967)
Lloyd “Little Poison” Warner inducted into Baseball' Hall of Fame, NY (July 22, 1967)
Suicide of Beatles’ manager Brian Epstein, sleeping pills (August 27, 1967)
1968 Suicide of actor Nick Adams, with sedatives (Feb. 7, 1968)
Antidote — FDA approves Desferal for iron poisoning (April 1, 1968)
1970 Death of rock star Jimi Hendrix, from drug OD; London, England (Sept. 18, 1970)
Poison Prevention Act is signed (Dec. 31, 1970)
1971 Birth of poison symbol "Mr. Yuk®" (Jan. 23, 1971)
Suicide of actress Pier Angeli, with barbiturates (September 11, 1971)
1972 Suicide of actor George Sanders, Nembutal (April 26, 1972)
Clean Water Act is passed (October 18, 1972)
1973 Death of actor/martial arts expert, Bruce Lee, equagesic allergy (July 20, 1973)
1974 Poisoner Ronald O’Bryan, “The Candy Man,” Cyanide Halloween candy; Pasadena, TX (October 31, 1974)
1975 Death of mystery writer Agatha Christie, Devon, England (Jan. 12, 1975)
1976 Disaster, Dioxin; Seveso, Italy (July 10, 1976)
Death of actress Anissa Jones (“Buffy” on Family Affair), barbiturate OD (August 28, 1976)
Toxic Substances Control Act (TOSCA), signed by President Gerald Ford (Oct. 11, 1976)
1978 President Jimmy Carter declares emergency at Love Canal, New York (Aug. 7, 1978)
Suicide of actor Charles Boyer, Seconal (August 26, 1978)
Assassination of Georgi Markov, Ricin; London, England (September 7, 1978)
Suicide of 913 People's Temple members, cyanide; Jonestown, Guyana (Nov. 18, 1978)
1979 Death of punk-rock singer Sid Vicious, from heroin OD, New York, NY (Feb. 2, 1979)
Anthrax escapes from Sverdlovsk military facility (April 2, 1979)
Thurman Munson dies of cyanide and carbon monoxide poisoning while trapped in his plane (August 2, 1979)
1980 Drummer John Bonham asphyxiates after 40 shots of vodka (Sept. 25, 1980)
Death of actress Rachel Roberts, from barbiturate OD (Nov. 26, 1980)
Law — Superfund created by President Carter with $1.6 billion, USA (Dec. 12, 1980)
Death of singer Tim Harden from heroin OD (Dec. 29, 1980)
1981 Jaime Vanero Garcia becomes first victim of “rapeseed oil epidemic” (May 1, 1981)
1982 Death of Blues singer Tommy Tucker (Jan. 22, 1982)
Actor John Belushi dies of “speedball” overdose, after 20 injections within 24 hours (March 5, 1982)
1984 Poisoner Ronald C. O’Bryan executed by lethal injection; TX (March 31, 1984)
Robert Diaz is convicted of murdering patients with Lidocaine (March 29, 1984)
1986 Phil Lynott of “Thin Lizzy,” dies from heroin OD (Feb. 4, 1986)
Death of imprisoned Vatican financial advisor Michele Sindona, with cyanide (March 22, 1986)
Antidote — FDA approves Digibind® for digoxin poisoning (April 22, 1986)
Bruce Nickell is poisoned with cyanide, by his wife Stella (June 5, 1986)
CO2 cloud escapes from Lake Nyos, Cameroon, killing 1,000 people (Aug. 21, 1986)
Schweizerhalle environmental disaster occurs, Switzerland (Nov. 1, 1986)
1987 Death of singer Paul Butterfield, from drug OD (May 5, 1987)
Stella Nickel is sentenced to 90 years in prison for murdering her husband with cyanide (May 9, 1987)
1st Toxicology Quiz Bowl held, Vancouver, Canada (West 190, East 115) (Oct. 1, 1987)
Arrest of nurse Richard Angelo for murder of patients with muscle relaxants (Nov. 15, 1987)
1988 Graffiti artist Jean Michel Basquiat is found dead of cocaine and heroin OD (Aug. 12, 1988)
1989 Suicide of activist Abbie Hoffman, by barbiturates and ethanol (April 12, 1989)
CDC receives first reports of EMS syndrome (Nov. 8, 1989)
1990 Dr. Jack Kavorkian assists his first suicide patient (June 4, 1990)
Ban by EPA of mercury in paint (August 20, 1990)
Deaths of religious cult members from CO; Tijuana, Mexico (Dec. 13, 1990)
1991 Antidote — FDA approves use of Succimer® for lead poisoning (Jan. 30, 1991)
Poisoner George Trepal found guilty of murder; Barlow, FL. (March 6, 1991)
19,500 gallons of Vapam falls into the Sacramento River (July 14, 1991)
1st meeting of the Toxicological History Society held, Toronto, Canada (Oct. 4, 1991)
Antidote — FDA approves Flumazenil for benzodiazepine poisoning (Dec. 20, 1991)
1992 Report published of first poisonous bird, “Hooded Pitohui,” Science (Oct. 30, 1992)
1993 Jack-in-the-Box restaurant recalls hamburgers, as E. Coli affects 230 patrons (Jan. 18, 1993)
Suicide of author Fletcher Knebel, “The Seven Days in May,” sleeping pills (Feb. 26, 1993)
Nuclear accident at Tomsk-7, Siberia (April 6, 1993)
Death of veteran defensive back David Weymer, from cocaine OD (April 30, 1993)
248 boa constrictors overdose on cocaine, while being used as “body packers” (June 22, 1993)
1994 Fumes from patient Gloria Ramirez cause collapse of ER personnel (Feb. 19, 1994)
Aum Shunrikyo used Sarin in Matsumoto, Japan, killing 7 citizens (June 27, 1994)
Suicide of Pulitzer Prize photo-journalist Kevin Carter, from CO (July 27, 1994)
53 members of the “Order of the Solar Temple” commit suicide in Canada and Switzerland (October 5, 1994)
Award-winning columnist Betsy Lehman dies from OD of Cytoxan (Dec. 3, 1994)
1995 Singer Phyllis Hyman commits suicide with sleeping pills (June 30, 1995)
Death of Louis Gdalman, RPh, founder of 1st US Poison Center (Aug. 29, 1995)
British astrologer Patric Walker dies from food poisoning (Oct. 8, 1995)
Shannon Hoon of “Blind Melon” dies of drug OD (Oct. 21, 1995)
1996 Don Simpson, producer of Flash Dance and Top Gun, overdoses on “speed” and wine (Jan. 19, 1996)
Actress Margaux Hemingway is found dead of phenobarbital OD (July 1, 1996)
Jonathan Melvoin, of “Smashing Pumpkins,” dies of heroin OD (July 13, 1996)
1997 39 UFO cult member commit suicide with phenobarbital and vodka (March 26, 1997)
Dartmouth dean Karen Watterhahn dies after spilling Dimethyl Mercury in a laboratory (June 12, 1997)
Antizol® (fomepizole) Injection is approved by the FDA (Dec. 4, 1997)
Comedian Chris Farley is found dead from morphine and cocaine OD (Dec. 18, 1997)
1998 Milli Vanilli “singer” Ro Pilatus dies of drug and alcohol OD (April 3, 1998)
Ikuro Hayushi, head of Aum Shinrikyo Hospital, sentenced for role in Sarin deaths (May 26, 1998)
Porn star Trinity Loren dies from drug OD (October 24, 1998)
1999 Li Yuhui is sentenced to death for giving cyanide to 5 woman claiming it a health product (March 23, 1999)
Dallas Cowboy tackle Mark Tuinei dies of XTC and heroin OD (May 6, 1999)
2000 Dam at Bain Mare gold mine, Romania spills 100 tons of cyanide in Danube and Tisza rivers (Jan. 20, 2000)
Dr. Harold Shipman convicted for 15 murders (believed to have poisoned over 300 patients) (Jan. 31, 2000)
President Clinton signs “Poison Center Enhancement and Awareness Act” (Feb. 25, 2000)
Death of Alan Done, MD, creator of the “Done nomogram” (March 18, 2000)
First cases of largest North American E. Coli outbreak begins to appear in Walkerton, Ontario (May 17, 2000)
Dr. Michael Swango is sentenced to life without parole for poisoning patients (September 6, 2000)
2002 Fest of “St. John the Apostle,” patron saint of poison specialists (Dec. 27, 2002)
Hair Evidence
Hairs, Fibers, Crime, and Evidence -- Part 1: Hair Evidence
Douglas W. Deedrick, Unit Chief, Trace Evidence Unit, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Washington, DC
Hair Evidence
Hairs, which are composed primarily of the protein keratin, can be defined as slender outgrowths of the skin of mammals. Each species of animal possesses hair with characteristic length, color, shape, root appearance, and internal microscopic features that distinguish one animal from another. Considerable variability also exists in the types of hairs that are found on the body of an animal. In humans, hairs found on the head, pubic region, arms, legs, and other body areas have characteristics that can determine their origin. On animals, hair types include coarse outer hairs or guard hairs, the finer fur hairs, tactile hairs such as whiskers, and other hairs that originate from the tail and mane of an animal.
Because hairs can be transferred during physical contact, their presence can associate a suspect to a victim or a suspect/victim to a crime scene. The types of hair recovered and the condition and number of hairs found all impact on their value as evidence in a criminal investigation. Comparison of the microscopic characteristics of questioned hairs to known hair samples helps determine whether a transfer may have occurred.
Hair Microscopy
The examination of human hairs in the forensic laboratory is typically conducted through the use of light microscopy. This examination routinely involves a two-step process—the identification of questioned hairs and the comparison of questioned and known hairs. The purpose for conducting this examination is to ascertain whether two or more individuals could have come into contact or whether one or more individuals could have come into contact with an object. This associative evidence is particularly useful in crimes of violence, such as homicide, sexual assault, and aggravated assault, where physical contact may have occurred. Crimes such as burglary and armed robbery typically involve the recovery of debris and articles of clothing which may contain hairs useful for the identification of suspects.
The value of hair evidence is related to the variability of hair characteristics between individuals in the population, which can be visualized through the use of comparison microscopy. There are many factors that impact on the reliability of a hair association, including experience, training, suitability of known hair standards, and adequacy of equipment. Although hair evidence is a valuable tool in human identification, it is difficult to establish a statistical probability for a particular association due in part to the lack of reliable quantitative assessments of the microscopic characteristics present in hairs.
The comparison microscope consists of two compound light microscopes connected by an optical bridge that allows for the simultaneous viewing of questioned hairs and known hairs. Typically, a glass microscope slide containing known or reference hairs is positioned on the stage of one microscope, and a glass microscope slide containing a questioned hair or hairs is positioned on the stage of the other microscope. This enables the hair examiner to compare the microscopic characteristics of the known and questioned hairs in one field. The range of magnification used is approximately 40X to 400X.
The hair examination process involves many different steps, the first of which is to determine whether the hair in question originated from an animal or a human being. If the hair originated from an animal, it is possible to further identify it to a particular type of animal. Although certain hairs can be attributed to species, it is not possible to identify hairs to a specific animal to the exclusion of other similar animals. An example of this occurs when dog hairs can be associated to a particular breed but cannot be identified to a specific dog within that breed.
Hair Anatomy and Growth
Hair is present on many different regions of the body. Each region, such as the head, pubic area, chest, axillae, and limbs, has hairs with microscopical characteristics attributable to that region. Although it is possible to identify a hair as originating from a particular body area, the regions of the body that are primarily used in forensic comparisons are the head and pubic areas. As hairs undergo a cyclical growth (anagen) and resting phase (telogen), the visible microscopic characteristics are sufficient to determine the phase of growth of the hair.
During the anagen phase, the hair is actively growing, and materials are deposited in the hair shaft by cells found in the follicle. Metabolically active and dividing cells above and around the dermal papilla of the follicle grow upward during this phase, to form the major components of the hair—the medulla, cortex, cuticle, and accompanying root sheath. In the telogen phase, the follicle is dormant or resting. The transition period between the anagen and telogen phases is referred to as the catagen phase.
Hairs are routinely lost during the telogen phase and often become a primary source of evidentiary material. An example of this natural shedding process can be seen when one combs through the hairs on the head. It is not uncommon for hairs of this type to be transferred to another individual or to an object during physical contact. Hairs can also become dislodged from the body while they are in an actively growing state, such as by pulling or by striking with an object. The microscopical appearance of the root area will allow for the determination of the growth phase.
On a healthy head, 80 to 90 percent of the hair follicles are in the anagen phase, 2 percent are in the catagen phase, and 10 to 18 percent are in the telogen phase. Once the hair reaches the telogen phase, the follicles have achieved a mature, stable stage of quiescence. During the telogen phase, the hair is anchored in the follicle only by the root, which is club-shaped. The germ cells below the club-shaped root will give rise to the next generation of an anagen hair. The replacement of human scalp hair occurs in a scattered mosaic fashion with no apparent wave-like or seasonal pattern. The average period of growth for scalp hair is approximately 1,000 days; the resting phase lasts about 100 days. Approximately 10 percent of the hairs on a human head (100/1000), therefore, are in the quiescent telogen phase, and a minimal amount of force—such as that from combing—is required to dislodge the hairs from the dormant follicle.
Naturally shed hairs, such as a head hair dislodged through combing, display undamaged, club-shaped roots.
A hair forcibly removed from the scalp will exhibit stretching and damage to the root area.
Forcibly removed hairs may have tissue attached.
The basic morphology of human hairs is shared by each individual in the population, but the arrangement, distribution, and appearance of individual microscopic characteristics within different regions of hair routinely allow a skilled hair examiner to differentiate hairs between individuals. An analogy would be the ability of an individual to recognize the face of a friend or relative in a crowd even though each person in the crowd possesses ears, eyes, a nose, and a mouth.
Animal Hairs
Animal hairs discovered on items of physical evidence can link a suspect or location to a crime of violence. A victim placed in a vehicle or held at a location where animals are routinely found often results in the transfer of animal hairs to the victim's clothing. Cat or dog hairs can be found on the adhesive portions of ransom and extortion notes prepared by pet owners. The transfer of pet hairs to the victim or crime scene may also occur when the suspect is a pet owner and has animal hairs on his or her clothing when the contact occurs. This is referred to as a secondary transfer of trace material.
When an animal hair is found, it is identified to a particular type of animal and microscopically compared with a known hair sample from either an animal hair reference collection or a specific animal. If the questioned hair exhibits the same microscopic characteristics as the known hairs, it is concluded that the hair is consistent with originating from that animal. It is noted, however, that animal hairs do not possess enough individual microscopic characteristics to be associated with a particular animal to the exclusion of other similar animals.
The collection of a suitable known animal hair standard is necessary before a meaningful comparison can be conducted. Because hairs can vary widely in color and length on different areas of the body of an animal, hairs should be collected from each area. While a minimum number of hairs is difficult to determine, good judgment should be used in collecting enough hairs to represent the various types and colors of hairs found on the animal. The sample should contain full-length hairs and should include combings as well as pluckings. If the animal is not available for sample collection, a brush or comb used for the animal may be substituted. Sometimes hair samples collected from a dog or cat bed may be useful when actual samples from the animal cannot be obtained.
Animal hairs found at crime scenes or on the clothing of suspects and victims may also have originated from a fur coat or pelt. These hairs may have been artificially colored or trimmed and often do not have a root. It is preferred that the entire fur garment be obtained so that suitable known samples can be submitted for comparison.
Human Hairs
As stated previously, physical contact may result in the transfer of hairs. These can transfer directly from the region of the body where they are growing—a primary transfer—or they can transfer from the clothing of individuals—a secondary transfer. It has been reported that approximately 100 head hairs are shed by an individual each day. These hairs are shed on clothing and on items in the environment. Contact between a victim and a suspect's environment can easily cause a secondary transfer of hair. Hairs that are found on the clothing of suspects or victims and appear to have fallen out naturally may be the result of primary or secondary transfer. Hairs that have been forcibly removed may suggest a violent confrontation.
Body Area Determination
The body area from which a hair originated can be determined by general morphology. Length, shape, size, color, stiffness, curliness, and microscopic appearance all contribute to the determination of body area. Pigmentation and medullar appearance also influence body area identification. Hairs that exhibit microscopic characteristics shared by different anatomical areas are often referred to as body hairs. These include hairs found on the upper legs, lower abdomen, and back. Because there is a wide range of interpersonal variation in head and pubic hairs, the majority of work in forensics has been in comparing and differentiating hairs from the head and pubic regions.
Head Hairs
Head hairs are usually the longest hairs on the human body. They are characterized as having a uniform diameter and, often, a cut tip. Head hairs can appear uncut, with tapered tips but are more often cut with scissors, razors, or clippers. In general these hairs are subject to more alteration than hairs from other body areas. Alterations to the natural appearance of hair include use of hair dyes, rinses, permanents, frosts, and other chemical applications. Environmental alterations can result from exposure to excessive sunlight, wind, dryness, and other conditions. Because these hairs can be affected by a number of environmental and chemical conditions, it is recommended that head hair samples be obtained as soon as possible from suspects and victims of crime. Head hair samples obtained years after a crime are generally not suitable for meaningful comparison purposes.
As head hairs are routinely compared in a forensic laboratory, it is important to obtain suitable known samples from suspects and victims and possibly from other individuals (elimination samples). The known sample should contain a random sampling of hair from different areas of the scalp. The number of hairs required for a meaningful comparison may vary depending on the uniformity of characteristics present in the hairs from an individual. Because this is not known when the hair sample is taken, obtain at least 25 full-length hairs. This hair sample should include both plucked and combed hairs, packaged separately.
Pubic Hairs
Pubic hairs are also routinely compared in a forensic laboratory. As with head hairs, considerable variation exists between individuals in the population. Pubic hairs are not subject to as much change as head hairs over time, and because of this, a sample taken a year or more after a crime may still be suitable for meaningful comparison purposes. It is recommended that a known pubic hair sample be obtained as soon as possible after a crime and should contain at least 25 full-length hairs taken from different areas of the pubic region.
Pubic hairs are generally coarse and wiry in appearance. They exhibit considerable diameter variation or buckling and often have a continuous to discontinuous medulla. While tapered tips are common, these hairs may also be abraded or cut.
Facial Hairs
Facial hairs are more commonly called beard hairs or mustache hairs. These hairs are coarse in appearance and can have a triangular cross section. Heavy shouldering or troughs in the hair are observed under magnification. Other characteristics include a wide medulla and a razor-cut tip.
The presence of facial hairs on the clothing of a suspect or victim may help establish contact between these individuals. While these hairs may be compared microscopically, the significance of the association may not be as great as head hair and pubic hair associations.
Limb Hairs
Hairs from the legs and arms constitute limb hairs. These hairs are shorter in length, arc-like in shape, and often abraded or tapered at the tips. The pigment in limb hair is generally granular in appearance, and the medulla is trace to discontinuous.
While limb hairs are not routinely compared in a forensic laboratory, they can differ in appearance between individuals. These differences, however, are not considered sufficient to allow limb hairs to be of value for meaningful comparison purposes. The presence of leg or arm hairs on certain items of evidence may help to corroborate other investigative information.
Fringe Hairs
Hairs originating from areas of the body outside those specifically designated as head or pubic are generally not suitable for significant comparison purposes. These hairs might originate from the neck, sideburns, abdomen, upper leg, and back.
Other Body Area Hairs
Axillary (underarm) hairs, chest hairs, eye hairs, and nose hairs are not routinely compared. As with limb hairs and fringe hairs, their presence may help to corroborate information obtained during an investigation.
Racial Determination
A human hair can be associated with a particular racial group based on established models for each group. Forensic examiners differentiate between hairs of Caucasoid (European ancestry), Mongoloid (Asian ancestry), and Negroid (African ancestry) origin, all of which exhibit microscopic characteristics that distinguish one racial group from another. Head hairs are generally considered best for determining race, although hairs from other body areas can be useful. Racial determination from the microscopic examination of head hairs from infants, however, can be difficult, and hairs from individuals of mixed racial ancestry may possess microscopic characteristics attributed to more than one racial group.
The identification of race is most useful as an investigative tool, but it can also be an associative tool when an individual's hairs exhibit unusual racial characteristics.
Caucasoid (European)
Hairs of Caucasoid or Caucasian origin can be of fine to medium coarseness, are generally straight or wavy in appearance, and exhibit colors ranging from blonde to brown to black. The hair shafts of Caucasian hairs vary from round to oval in cross section and have fine to medium-sized, evenly distributed pigment granules.
Mongoloid (Asian)
Hairs of Mongoloid or Asian origin are regularly coarse, straight, and circular in cross section, with a wider diameter than the hairs of the other racial groups. The outer layer of the hair, the cuticle, is usually significantly thicker than the cuticle of Negroid and Caucasian hairs, and the medulla, or central canal, is continuous and wide. The hair shaft, or cortex, of Mongoloid hair contains pigment granules that are generally larger in size than the pigment granules of Caucasian hairs and which often appear to be grouped in patchy areas within the shaft. Mongoloid hair can have a characteristic reddish appearance as a product of its pigment.
Negroid (African)
Hairs of Negroid or African origin are regularly curly or kinky, have a flattened cross section, and can appear curly, wavy, or coiled. Negroid pigment granules are larger than those found in Mongoloid and Caucasian hair and are grouped in clumps of different sizes and shapes. The density of the pigment in the hair shaft may be so great as to make the hair opaque. A Negroid hair shaft exhibits variation or apparent variation in diameter because of its flattened nature and the manner in which it lies on the microscope slide. Twisting of the hair shaft, known as buckling, can be present, and the hair shaft frequently splits along the length.
Age and Sex
The age of an individual cannot be determined definitively by a microscopic examination; however, the microscopic appearance of certain human hairs, such as those of infants and elderly individuals, may provide a general indication of age. The hairs of infants, for example, are generally finer and less distinctive in microscopic appearance. As individuals age, hair can undergo pigment loss and changes in the configuration of the hair shaft to become much finer and more variable in diameter.
Although the sex of an individual is difficult to determine from microscopic examination, longer, treated hairs are more frequently encountered in female individuals. Sex can be determined from a forcibly removed hair (with tissue), but this is not routinely done. Definitive determination of sex can be accomplished through the staining of sex chromatin in the cells found in the follicular tissue, but nuclear DNA and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) tests will provide more specific information regarding the possible origin of the hair.
Treatment and Removal
The presence of artificial treatment such as dyes or rinses can be identified through microscopical examination. Inasmuch as head hairs grow at the rate of one centimeter per month, the approximate time of this treatment can be determined by measuring the length of untreated area of the hair. A direct, side-by-side comparison of the color of the questioned and known artificially treated hairs is typically conducted by a hair examiner.
As stated previously, the condition of the root area of a hair allows the hair examiner to microscopically determine whether the hair was forcibly removed from the body or shed naturally. Hairs that fall out naturally have a club-shaped root, whereas a forcibly removed hair will be stretched and may have tissue attached to it. The manner in which a hair was removed can have considerable value, especially when there is a possibility of violent contact between a suspect and a victim. The identification of burned, cut, or crushed hairs can also be established through microscopic examination.
Biological or Environmental Alteration
The microscopic appearance of hairs is affected by natural biological fluctuations and environmental influences. For this reason, it is important that known hair standards are collected contemporaneously to the deposition of questioned hairs. Head hairs are most affected by these factors, whereas pubic hairs are less influenced. A time period of several months to years can detract from a meaningful head hair comparison, whereas several years may not severely impact on meaningful pubic hair comparisons.
When hairs originate from a body in a state of decomposition, a dark band may appear near the root of the hair. This characteristic has been labeled a postmortem root band.
Conclusions
There are several possible conclusions that can be reached from the microscopic examination and comparison of human hairs. When the questioned hair(s) is compared to the known hairs using a comparison microscope, the full length of the hair(s) as well as the full range of microscopic characteristics must be considered. Following their analyses, hair examiners may conclude the following:
The questioned hair exhibits the same microscopic characteristics as the hairs in the known hair sample and, accordingly, is consistent with originating from the source of the known hairs.
The questioned hair is microscopically dissimilar to the hairs found in the known hair sample and, accordingly, cannot be associated to the source of the known hairs.
Similarities and slight differences were observed between the questioned hair and hairs in the known hair sample. Accordingly, no conclusion could be reached as to whether the questioned hair originated from the same source as the known hairs.
When a hair exhibits the same microscopic characteristics as hairs in the known hair sample, a qualifying statement may be added to the report. This statement may read as follows:
Hair comparisons are not a basis for absolute personal identification. It should be noted, however, that because it is unusual to find hairs from two different individuals that exhibit the same microscopic characteristics, a microscopic association or match is the basis for a strong association.
Significance of Hair Evidence
The significance of hair examination results is dependent on the method of evidence collection used at the crime scene, the evidence processing techniques employed, the methodology of the hair examination process, and the experience of the hair examiner. Head hairs and pubic hairs are routinely held as more significant than hairs from other body areas.
Certain case situations affect the significance of identifying hairs. When a family member may be involved in a crime, the location, number, and condition (forcibly pulled or burnt, for example) of recovered hairs may be important. The involvement of the victim's associates, including dates, coworkers, and other people who may have logical contact with or access to the victim and/or crime scene is an additional consideration in hair examinations. Situations involving strangers have greatest significance when hair associations have been made.
Questions concerning hair examinations and their significance include:
Is the significance of a hair association dependent on a set number of compared characteristics?
Does the length of the compared hairs affect the significance of an association?
Does treatment influence the significance?
Are hairs of specific racial groups more significant than others?
Do hair sprays, gels, or other hair applications influence the significance of a hair match?
Is a hair match significant when the comparison was made with a limited number of known hairs?
The hair identification process involves the examination and comparison of hair characteristics along the entire length of the hair(s). Longer hairs have more characteristics to compare, and the greater the variation along the length, the greater the degree of significance.
The value of the evidence in establishing a particular association can be influenced by
the probability that the association (or elimination) was due to coincidence,
the probability that the association (or elimination) was due to examiner error, and
the probability that there is an alternative explanation for the evidence, such as secondary transfer,
contamination, or deliberate planting.
The significance of a hair match is influenced by how often the examiner has seen certain characteristics as well as by how often the examiner has seen hairs of a particular race or body area.
The range of opinions concerning hair examinations includes:
Nothing about hair is comparable to the specificity of fingerprints, and at best, the probability of establishing
identification from hair is no greater than the probability of determining identification using the ABO blood group system;
Research studies have shown that hairs from two individuals are distinguishable; that no accidental
or coincidental matches occurred; and that such accidental or coincidental matches would, in actual casework, be a relatively rare event; and
The significance of a hair match is a median point between the above statements.
It has also been stated that hair evidence is only of value when used in conjunction with other evidence.
Positive hair comparison conclusions may be weakened by the presence of incomplete hairs; by common, featureless hairs; and by known samples with large intrasample variation. Conversely, positive hair comparison conclusions are strengthened by the presence of two or more mutually dissimilar hairs that are similar to a known sample; by hairs with unusual characteristics; by two-way transfers; and by additional examinations of confirmation, such as DNA and sex-typing.
Normal negative hair comparison conclusions are weakened by deficiencies in the known hair sample, including too few hairs, unrepresentative hairs, incomplete hairs, and a significant temporal difference between the offense and the collection of the known sample. Negative hair comparison conclusions are also weakened by the presence of incomplete questioned hairs and by similarities and differences within the hair sample.
Factors which strengthen normal negative hair comparison conclusions include a large quantity of known sample hairs; little intrasample variation within the known sample; and hairs that are very dissimilar, such as those exhibiting distinct racial and/or microscopic characteristics. Two or more questioned hairs that are found together in a clump and are dissimilar to the known sample will also support a negative hair comparison conclusion.
Douglas W. Deedrick, Unit Chief, Trace Evidence Unit, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Washington, DC
Hair Evidence
Hairs, which are composed primarily of the protein keratin, can be defined as slender outgrowths of the skin of mammals. Each species of animal possesses hair with characteristic length, color, shape, root appearance, and internal microscopic features that distinguish one animal from another. Considerable variability also exists in the types of hairs that are found on the body of an animal. In humans, hairs found on the head, pubic region, arms, legs, and other body areas have characteristics that can determine their origin. On animals, hair types include coarse outer hairs or guard hairs, the finer fur hairs, tactile hairs such as whiskers, and other hairs that originate from the tail and mane of an animal.
Because hairs can be transferred during physical contact, their presence can associate a suspect to a victim or a suspect/victim to a crime scene. The types of hair recovered and the condition and number of hairs found all impact on their value as evidence in a criminal investigation. Comparison of the microscopic characteristics of questioned hairs to known hair samples helps determine whether a transfer may have occurred.
Hair Microscopy
The examination of human hairs in the forensic laboratory is typically conducted through the use of light microscopy. This examination routinely involves a two-step process—the identification of questioned hairs and the comparison of questioned and known hairs. The purpose for conducting this examination is to ascertain whether two or more individuals could have come into contact or whether one or more individuals could have come into contact with an object. This associative evidence is particularly useful in crimes of violence, such as homicide, sexual assault, and aggravated assault, where physical contact may have occurred. Crimes such as burglary and armed robbery typically involve the recovery of debris and articles of clothing which may contain hairs useful for the identification of suspects.
The value of hair evidence is related to the variability of hair characteristics between individuals in the population, which can be visualized through the use of comparison microscopy. There are many factors that impact on the reliability of a hair association, including experience, training, suitability of known hair standards, and adequacy of equipment. Although hair evidence is a valuable tool in human identification, it is difficult to establish a statistical probability for a particular association due in part to the lack of reliable quantitative assessments of the microscopic characteristics present in hairs.
The comparison microscope consists of two compound light microscopes connected by an optical bridge that allows for the simultaneous viewing of questioned hairs and known hairs. Typically, a glass microscope slide containing known or reference hairs is positioned on the stage of one microscope, and a glass microscope slide containing a questioned hair or hairs is positioned on the stage of the other microscope. This enables the hair examiner to compare the microscopic characteristics of the known and questioned hairs in one field. The range of magnification used is approximately 40X to 400X.
The hair examination process involves many different steps, the first of which is to determine whether the hair in question originated from an animal or a human being. If the hair originated from an animal, it is possible to further identify it to a particular type of animal. Although certain hairs can be attributed to species, it is not possible to identify hairs to a specific animal to the exclusion of other similar animals. An example of this occurs when dog hairs can be associated to a particular breed but cannot be identified to a specific dog within that breed.
Hair Anatomy and Growth
Hair is present on many different regions of the body. Each region, such as the head, pubic area, chest, axillae, and limbs, has hairs with microscopical characteristics attributable to that region. Although it is possible to identify a hair as originating from a particular body area, the regions of the body that are primarily used in forensic comparisons are the head and pubic areas. As hairs undergo a cyclical growth (anagen) and resting phase (telogen), the visible microscopic characteristics are sufficient to determine the phase of growth of the hair.
During the anagen phase, the hair is actively growing, and materials are deposited in the hair shaft by cells found in the follicle. Metabolically active and dividing cells above and around the dermal papilla of the follicle grow upward during this phase, to form the major components of the hair—the medulla, cortex, cuticle, and accompanying root sheath. In the telogen phase, the follicle is dormant or resting. The transition period between the anagen and telogen phases is referred to as the catagen phase.
Hairs are routinely lost during the telogen phase and often become a primary source of evidentiary material. An example of this natural shedding process can be seen when one combs through the hairs on the head. It is not uncommon for hairs of this type to be transferred to another individual or to an object during physical contact. Hairs can also become dislodged from the body while they are in an actively growing state, such as by pulling or by striking with an object. The microscopical appearance of the root area will allow for the determination of the growth phase.
On a healthy head, 80 to 90 percent of the hair follicles are in the anagen phase, 2 percent are in the catagen phase, and 10 to 18 percent are in the telogen phase. Once the hair reaches the telogen phase, the follicles have achieved a mature, stable stage of quiescence. During the telogen phase, the hair is anchored in the follicle only by the root, which is club-shaped. The germ cells below the club-shaped root will give rise to the next generation of an anagen hair. The replacement of human scalp hair occurs in a scattered mosaic fashion with no apparent wave-like or seasonal pattern. The average period of growth for scalp hair is approximately 1,000 days; the resting phase lasts about 100 days. Approximately 10 percent of the hairs on a human head (100/1000), therefore, are in the quiescent telogen phase, and a minimal amount of force—such as that from combing—is required to dislodge the hairs from the dormant follicle.
Naturally shed hairs, such as a head hair dislodged through combing, display undamaged, club-shaped roots.
A hair forcibly removed from the scalp will exhibit stretching and damage to the root area.
Forcibly removed hairs may have tissue attached.
The basic morphology of human hairs is shared by each individual in the population, but the arrangement, distribution, and appearance of individual microscopic characteristics within different regions of hair routinely allow a skilled hair examiner to differentiate hairs between individuals. An analogy would be the ability of an individual to recognize the face of a friend or relative in a crowd even though each person in the crowd possesses ears, eyes, a nose, and a mouth.
Animal Hairs
Animal hairs discovered on items of physical evidence can link a suspect or location to a crime of violence. A victim placed in a vehicle or held at a location where animals are routinely found often results in the transfer of animal hairs to the victim's clothing. Cat or dog hairs can be found on the adhesive portions of ransom and extortion notes prepared by pet owners. The transfer of pet hairs to the victim or crime scene may also occur when the suspect is a pet owner and has animal hairs on his or her clothing when the contact occurs. This is referred to as a secondary transfer of trace material.
When an animal hair is found, it is identified to a particular type of animal and microscopically compared with a known hair sample from either an animal hair reference collection or a specific animal. If the questioned hair exhibits the same microscopic characteristics as the known hairs, it is concluded that the hair is consistent with originating from that animal. It is noted, however, that animal hairs do not possess enough individual microscopic characteristics to be associated with a particular animal to the exclusion of other similar animals.
The collection of a suitable known animal hair standard is necessary before a meaningful comparison can be conducted. Because hairs can vary widely in color and length on different areas of the body of an animal, hairs should be collected from each area. While a minimum number of hairs is difficult to determine, good judgment should be used in collecting enough hairs to represent the various types and colors of hairs found on the animal. The sample should contain full-length hairs and should include combings as well as pluckings. If the animal is not available for sample collection, a brush or comb used for the animal may be substituted. Sometimes hair samples collected from a dog or cat bed may be useful when actual samples from the animal cannot be obtained.
Animal hairs found at crime scenes or on the clothing of suspects and victims may also have originated from a fur coat or pelt. These hairs may have been artificially colored or trimmed and often do not have a root. It is preferred that the entire fur garment be obtained so that suitable known samples can be submitted for comparison.
Human Hairs
As stated previously, physical contact may result in the transfer of hairs. These can transfer directly from the region of the body where they are growing—a primary transfer—or they can transfer from the clothing of individuals—a secondary transfer. It has been reported that approximately 100 head hairs are shed by an individual each day. These hairs are shed on clothing and on items in the environment. Contact between a victim and a suspect's environment can easily cause a secondary transfer of hair. Hairs that are found on the clothing of suspects or victims and appear to have fallen out naturally may be the result of primary or secondary transfer. Hairs that have been forcibly removed may suggest a violent confrontation.
Body Area Determination
The body area from which a hair originated can be determined by general morphology. Length, shape, size, color, stiffness, curliness, and microscopic appearance all contribute to the determination of body area. Pigmentation and medullar appearance also influence body area identification. Hairs that exhibit microscopic characteristics shared by different anatomical areas are often referred to as body hairs. These include hairs found on the upper legs, lower abdomen, and back. Because there is a wide range of interpersonal variation in head and pubic hairs, the majority of work in forensics has been in comparing and differentiating hairs from the head and pubic regions.
Head Hairs
Head hairs are usually the longest hairs on the human body. They are characterized as having a uniform diameter and, often, a cut tip. Head hairs can appear uncut, with tapered tips but are more often cut with scissors, razors, or clippers. In general these hairs are subject to more alteration than hairs from other body areas. Alterations to the natural appearance of hair include use of hair dyes, rinses, permanents, frosts, and other chemical applications. Environmental alterations can result from exposure to excessive sunlight, wind, dryness, and other conditions. Because these hairs can be affected by a number of environmental and chemical conditions, it is recommended that head hair samples be obtained as soon as possible from suspects and victims of crime. Head hair samples obtained years after a crime are generally not suitable for meaningful comparison purposes.
As head hairs are routinely compared in a forensic laboratory, it is important to obtain suitable known samples from suspects and victims and possibly from other individuals (elimination samples). The known sample should contain a random sampling of hair from different areas of the scalp. The number of hairs required for a meaningful comparison may vary depending on the uniformity of characteristics present in the hairs from an individual. Because this is not known when the hair sample is taken, obtain at least 25 full-length hairs. This hair sample should include both plucked and combed hairs, packaged separately.
Pubic Hairs
Pubic hairs are also routinely compared in a forensic laboratory. As with head hairs, considerable variation exists between individuals in the population. Pubic hairs are not subject to as much change as head hairs over time, and because of this, a sample taken a year or more after a crime may still be suitable for meaningful comparison purposes. It is recommended that a known pubic hair sample be obtained as soon as possible after a crime and should contain at least 25 full-length hairs taken from different areas of the pubic region.
Pubic hairs are generally coarse and wiry in appearance. They exhibit considerable diameter variation or buckling and often have a continuous to discontinuous medulla. While tapered tips are common, these hairs may also be abraded or cut.
Facial Hairs
Facial hairs are more commonly called beard hairs or mustache hairs. These hairs are coarse in appearance and can have a triangular cross section. Heavy shouldering or troughs in the hair are observed under magnification. Other characteristics include a wide medulla and a razor-cut tip.
The presence of facial hairs on the clothing of a suspect or victim may help establish contact between these individuals. While these hairs may be compared microscopically, the significance of the association may not be as great as head hair and pubic hair associations.
Limb Hairs
Hairs from the legs and arms constitute limb hairs. These hairs are shorter in length, arc-like in shape, and often abraded or tapered at the tips. The pigment in limb hair is generally granular in appearance, and the medulla is trace to discontinuous.
While limb hairs are not routinely compared in a forensic laboratory, they can differ in appearance between individuals. These differences, however, are not considered sufficient to allow limb hairs to be of value for meaningful comparison purposes. The presence of leg or arm hairs on certain items of evidence may help to corroborate other investigative information.
Fringe Hairs
Hairs originating from areas of the body outside those specifically designated as head or pubic are generally not suitable for significant comparison purposes. These hairs might originate from the neck, sideburns, abdomen, upper leg, and back.
Other Body Area Hairs
Axillary (underarm) hairs, chest hairs, eye hairs, and nose hairs are not routinely compared. As with limb hairs and fringe hairs, their presence may help to corroborate information obtained during an investigation.
Racial Determination
A human hair can be associated with a particular racial group based on established models for each group. Forensic examiners differentiate between hairs of Caucasoid (European ancestry), Mongoloid (Asian ancestry), and Negroid (African ancestry) origin, all of which exhibit microscopic characteristics that distinguish one racial group from another. Head hairs are generally considered best for determining race, although hairs from other body areas can be useful. Racial determination from the microscopic examination of head hairs from infants, however, can be difficult, and hairs from individuals of mixed racial ancestry may possess microscopic characteristics attributed to more than one racial group.
The identification of race is most useful as an investigative tool, but it can also be an associative tool when an individual's hairs exhibit unusual racial characteristics.
Caucasoid (European)
Hairs of Caucasoid or Caucasian origin can be of fine to medium coarseness, are generally straight or wavy in appearance, and exhibit colors ranging from blonde to brown to black. The hair shafts of Caucasian hairs vary from round to oval in cross section and have fine to medium-sized, evenly distributed pigment granules.
Mongoloid (Asian)
Hairs of Mongoloid or Asian origin are regularly coarse, straight, and circular in cross section, with a wider diameter than the hairs of the other racial groups. The outer layer of the hair, the cuticle, is usually significantly thicker than the cuticle of Negroid and Caucasian hairs, and the medulla, or central canal, is continuous and wide. The hair shaft, or cortex, of Mongoloid hair contains pigment granules that are generally larger in size than the pigment granules of Caucasian hairs and which often appear to be grouped in patchy areas within the shaft. Mongoloid hair can have a characteristic reddish appearance as a product of its pigment.
Negroid (African)
Hairs of Negroid or African origin are regularly curly or kinky, have a flattened cross section, and can appear curly, wavy, or coiled. Negroid pigment granules are larger than those found in Mongoloid and Caucasian hair and are grouped in clumps of different sizes and shapes. The density of the pigment in the hair shaft may be so great as to make the hair opaque. A Negroid hair shaft exhibits variation or apparent variation in diameter because of its flattened nature and the manner in which it lies on the microscope slide. Twisting of the hair shaft, known as buckling, can be present, and the hair shaft frequently splits along the length.
Age and Sex
The age of an individual cannot be determined definitively by a microscopic examination; however, the microscopic appearance of certain human hairs, such as those of infants and elderly individuals, may provide a general indication of age. The hairs of infants, for example, are generally finer and less distinctive in microscopic appearance. As individuals age, hair can undergo pigment loss and changes in the configuration of the hair shaft to become much finer and more variable in diameter.
Although the sex of an individual is difficult to determine from microscopic examination, longer, treated hairs are more frequently encountered in female individuals. Sex can be determined from a forcibly removed hair (with tissue), but this is not routinely done. Definitive determination of sex can be accomplished through the staining of sex chromatin in the cells found in the follicular tissue, but nuclear DNA and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) tests will provide more specific information regarding the possible origin of the hair.
Treatment and Removal
The presence of artificial treatment such as dyes or rinses can be identified through microscopical examination. Inasmuch as head hairs grow at the rate of one centimeter per month, the approximate time of this treatment can be determined by measuring the length of untreated area of the hair. A direct, side-by-side comparison of the color of the questioned and known artificially treated hairs is typically conducted by a hair examiner.
As stated previously, the condition of the root area of a hair allows the hair examiner to microscopically determine whether the hair was forcibly removed from the body or shed naturally. Hairs that fall out naturally have a club-shaped root, whereas a forcibly removed hair will be stretched and may have tissue attached to it. The manner in which a hair was removed can have considerable value, especially when there is a possibility of violent contact between a suspect and a victim. The identification of burned, cut, or crushed hairs can also be established through microscopic examination.
Biological or Environmental Alteration
The microscopic appearance of hairs is affected by natural biological fluctuations and environmental influences. For this reason, it is important that known hair standards are collected contemporaneously to the deposition of questioned hairs. Head hairs are most affected by these factors, whereas pubic hairs are less influenced. A time period of several months to years can detract from a meaningful head hair comparison, whereas several years may not severely impact on meaningful pubic hair comparisons.
When hairs originate from a body in a state of decomposition, a dark band may appear near the root of the hair. This characteristic has been labeled a postmortem root band.
Conclusions
There are several possible conclusions that can be reached from the microscopic examination and comparison of human hairs. When the questioned hair(s) is compared to the known hairs using a comparison microscope, the full length of the hair(s) as well as the full range of microscopic characteristics must be considered. Following their analyses, hair examiners may conclude the following:
The questioned hair exhibits the same microscopic characteristics as the hairs in the known hair sample and, accordingly, is consistent with originating from the source of the known hairs.
The questioned hair is microscopically dissimilar to the hairs found in the known hair sample and, accordingly, cannot be associated to the source of the known hairs.
Similarities and slight differences were observed between the questioned hair and hairs in the known hair sample. Accordingly, no conclusion could be reached as to whether the questioned hair originated from the same source as the known hairs.
When a hair exhibits the same microscopic characteristics as hairs in the known hair sample, a qualifying statement may be added to the report. This statement may read as follows:
Hair comparisons are not a basis for absolute personal identification. It should be noted, however, that because it is unusual to find hairs from two different individuals that exhibit the same microscopic characteristics, a microscopic association or match is the basis for a strong association.
Significance of Hair Evidence
The significance of hair examination results is dependent on the method of evidence collection used at the crime scene, the evidence processing techniques employed, the methodology of the hair examination process, and the experience of the hair examiner. Head hairs and pubic hairs are routinely held as more significant than hairs from other body areas.
Certain case situations affect the significance of identifying hairs. When a family member may be involved in a crime, the location, number, and condition (forcibly pulled or burnt, for example) of recovered hairs may be important. The involvement of the victim's associates, including dates, coworkers, and other people who may have logical contact with or access to the victim and/or crime scene is an additional consideration in hair examinations. Situations involving strangers have greatest significance when hair associations have been made.
Questions concerning hair examinations and their significance include:
Is the significance of a hair association dependent on a set number of compared characteristics?
Does the length of the compared hairs affect the significance of an association?
Does treatment influence the significance?
Are hairs of specific racial groups more significant than others?
Do hair sprays, gels, or other hair applications influence the significance of a hair match?
Is a hair match significant when the comparison was made with a limited number of known hairs?
The hair identification process involves the examination and comparison of hair characteristics along the entire length of the hair(s). Longer hairs have more characteristics to compare, and the greater the variation along the length, the greater the degree of significance.
The value of the evidence in establishing a particular association can be influenced by
the probability that the association (or elimination) was due to coincidence,
the probability that the association (or elimination) was due to examiner error, and
the probability that there is an alternative explanation for the evidence, such as secondary transfer,
contamination, or deliberate planting.
The significance of a hair match is influenced by how often the examiner has seen certain characteristics as well as by how often the examiner has seen hairs of a particular race or body area.
The range of opinions concerning hair examinations includes:
Nothing about hair is comparable to the specificity of fingerprints, and at best, the probability of establishing
identification from hair is no greater than the probability of determining identification using the ABO blood group system;
Research studies have shown that hairs from two individuals are distinguishable; that no accidental
or coincidental matches occurred; and that such accidental or coincidental matches would, in actual casework, be a relatively rare event; and
The significance of a hair match is a median point between the above statements.
It has also been stated that hair evidence is only of value when used in conjunction with other evidence.
Positive hair comparison conclusions may be weakened by the presence of incomplete hairs; by common, featureless hairs; and by known samples with large intrasample variation. Conversely, positive hair comparison conclusions are strengthened by the presence of two or more mutually dissimilar hairs that are similar to a known sample; by hairs with unusual characteristics; by two-way transfers; and by additional examinations of confirmation, such as DNA and sex-typing.
Normal negative hair comparison conclusions are weakened by deficiencies in the known hair sample, including too few hairs, unrepresentative hairs, incomplete hairs, and a significant temporal difference between the offense and the collection of the known sample. Negative hair comparison conclusions are also weakened by the presence of incomplete questioned hairs and by similarities and differences within the hair sample.
Factors which strengthen normal negative hair comparison conclusions include a large quantity of known sample hairs; little intrasample variation within the known sample; and hairs that are very dissimilar, such as those exhibiting distinct racial and/or microscopic characteristics. Two or more questioned hairs that are found together in a clump and are dissimilar to the known sample will also support a negative hair comparison conclusion.
Fiber Evidence
Hairs, Fibers, Crime, and Evidence -- Part 2: Fiber Evidence
Douglas W. Deedrick, Unit Chief, Trace Evidence Unit, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Washington, DC
Introduction
Placing a suspect at the scene of a crime is an important element in criminal investigation. This can be achieved through the location of textile fibers similar to those from the victim's clothing or the crime scene on the clothing of the suspect, or through the discovery of fibers like those in the suspect's clothing at the crime scene.
Textile fibers can be exchanged between two individuals, between an individual and an object, and between two objects. When fibers are matched with a specific source (fabric from the victim, suspect, and/or scene), a value is placed on that association. This value is dependent on many factors, including the type of fiber found, the color or variation of color in the fiber, the number of fibers found, the location of fibers at the crime scene or on the victim, and the number of different fibers at the crime scene or on the victim that match the clothing of the suspect.
Whether a fiber is transferred and detected is dependent on the nature and duration of contact between the suspect and the victim or crime scene, the persistence of fibers after the transfer, and the type(s) of fabric involved in contact.
Fiber Evidence
A fiber is the smallest unit of a textile material that has a length many times greater than its diameter. Fibers can occur naturally as plant and animal fibers, but they can also be man-made. A fiber can be spun with other fibers to form a yarn that can be woven or knitted to form a fabric. The type and length of fiber used, the type of spinning method, and the type of fabric construction all affect the transfer of fibers and the significance of fiber associations. This becomes very important when there is a possibility of fiber transfer between a suspect and a victim during the commission of a crime.
As discussed previously, fibers are considered a form of trace evidence that can be transferred from the clothing of a suspect to the clothing of a victim during the commission of a crime. Fibers can also transfer from a fabric source such as a carpet, bed, or furniture at a crime scene. These transfers can either be direct (primary) or indirect (secondary). A primary transfer occurs when a fiber is transferred from a fabric directly onto a victim's clothing, whereas a secondary transfer occurs when already transferred fibers on the clothing of a suspect transfer to the clothing of a victim. An understanding of the mechanics of primary and secondary transfer is important when reconstructing the events of a crime.
When two people come in contact or when contact occurs with an item from the crime scene, the possibility exists that a fiber transfer will take place. This does not mean that a fiber transfer will always take place. Certain types of fabric do not shed well (donor garments), and some fabrics do not hold fibers well (recipient garments). The construction and fiber composition of the fabric, the duration and force of contact, and the condition of the garment with regard to damage are important considerations.
An important consideration is the length of time between the actual physical contact and the collection of clothing items from the suspect or victim. If the victim is immobile, very little fiber loss will take place, whereas the suspect's clothing will lose transferred fibers quickly. The likelihood of finding transferred fibers on the clothing of the suspect a day after the alleged contact may be remote, depending on the subsequent use or handling of that clothing.
Natural Fibers
Many different natural fibers originating from plants and animals are used in the production of fabric. Cotton fibers are the plant fibers most commonly used in textile materials, with the type of cotton, fiber length, and degree of twist contributing to the diversity of these fibers. Processing techniques and color applications also influence the value of cotton fiber identifications.
Other plant fibers used in the production of textile materials include flax (linen), ramie, sisal, jute, hemp, kapok, and coir. The identification of less common plant fibers at a crime scene or on the clothing of a suspect or victim would have increased significance.
The animal fiber most frequently used in the production of textile materials is wool, and the most common wool fibers originate from sheep. The end use of sheep's wool often dictates the fineness or coarseness of woolen fibers: Finer woolen fibers are used in the production of clothing, whereas coarser fibers are found in carpet. Fiber diameter and degree of scale protrusion of the fibers are other important characteristics. Although sheep's wool is most common, woolen fibers from other animals may also be found. These include camel, alpaca, cashmere, mohair, and others. The identification of less common animal fibers at a crime scene or on the clothing of a suspect or victim would have increased
Man-Made Fibers
More than half of all fibers used in the production of textile materials are man-made. Some man-made fibers originate from natural materials such as cotton or wood; others originate from synthetic materials. Polyester and nylon fibers are the most commonly encountered man-made fibers, followed by acrylics, rayons, and acetates. There are also many other less common man-made fibers. The amount of production of a particular man-made fiber and its end use influence the degree of rarity of a given fiber.
The shape of a man-made fiber can determine the value placed on that fiber. The cross section of a man-made fiber can be manufacturer-specific: Some cross sections are more common than others, and some shapes may only be produced for a short period of time. Unusual cross sections encountered through examination can add increased significance to a fiber association.
Fiber Color
Color influences the value given to a particular fiber identification. Often several dyes are used to give a fiber a desired color. Individual fibers can be colored prior to being spun into yarns. Yarns can be dyed, and fabrics made from them can be dyed. Color can also be applied to the surface of fabric, as found in printed fabrics. How color is applied and absorbed along the length of the fiber are important comparison characteristics. Color-fading and discoloration can also lend increased value to a fiber association.
Fiber Number
The number of fibers on the clothing of a victim identified as matching the clothing of a suspect is important in determining actual contact. The greater the number of fibers, the more likely that contact actually occurred between these individuals.
Fiber Location
Where fibers are found also affects the value placed on a particular fiber association. The location of fibers on different areas of the body or on specific items at the crime scene influences the significance of the fiber association.
Fabrics
Fabric Type
How a fabric is constructed affects the number and types of fibers that may be transferred during contact. Tightly woven or knitted fabrics shed less often than loosely knit or woven fabrics; fabrics composed of filament yarns shed less than fabrics composed of spun yarns. Certain types of fibers also tend to transfer more readily.
The age of a fabric also affects the degree of fiber transfers. Some newer fabrics may shed more readily because of an abundance of loosely adhering fibers on the surface of the fabric. Some worn fabrics may have damaged areas that easily shed fibers. Damage to a fabric caused during physical contact greatly increases the likelihood of fiber transfer.
Fabric Source Determination
When a questioned fiber is compared to fibers from a known fabric source, a determination is made as to whether this fiber could have originated from the known fabric. It is not possible to say positively that a fiber originated from a particular fabric, although the inability to positively associate a fiber with a source in no way diminishes the significance of a fiber association. The wide variety of fiber types, fiber colors, and fabric types can make fiber associations very significant because the value of a fiber association depends on the type of fiber, the color of the fiber, the number of fibers transferred, the location of the recovered fibers, and other factors.
It could be very helpful to know the frequency of occurrence of a particular fabric and fiber, or how many fabrics with a particular fiber type and color exist, as well as who owns them. Such information, however, is extremely difficult to obtain. If the manufacturer of a fabric is known, the possibility exists that the number of fabric units produced could also be obtained, but this information is not always available. How many garments like this still exist, and where they are located, are still in question.
Once a particular fiber of a certain type, shape, and color is produced and becomes part of a fabric, it occupies an extremely small portion of the fiber/fabric population. Exceptions to this would be white cotton fibers and blue cotton fibers like those comprising blue jeans. There are other fibers that are common, but the majority of fibers of a particular type and color constitute a very small percentage of the total number of fibers that exist in the world.
Fiber Transfer and Persistence
Textile fibers are transferred to the surface of a fabric either by direct transfer (primary transfer) or indirect transfer (secondary transfer). The likelihood of transfer depends on the types of fabric involved in the contact and the nature and duration of the contact. Studies have shown that transferred fibers are lost rather quickly, depending on the types of fabrics involved and on the movement of the clothing after contact. For example, the clothing of a homicide victim would tend to retain transferred fibers for a longer period of time because the victim is not moving.
Emergency personnel, medical examiners, and investigators must handle the victim's clothing carefully to minimize fiber loss. Fibers transferred onto the clothing of an assault victim or onto the suspect's clothing will be lost if the victim and suspect move about, brush the clothing, or wash the clothing. It is difficult to predict precisely how many fibers might remain on the clothing of a living victim or suspect after a given period of time, but it is important for investigators to retrieve and preserve the clothing from these individuals as soon as possible.
Nature of Contact
The type of physical contact between a suspect and a victim can determine the number of fibers transferred and the value placed on their discovery. Violent physical contact of an extended duration will very often result in numerous fiber transfers.
Multiple Fiber Associations
Multiple fiber types found on different items of clothing or fabric from the suspect, victim, and crime scene greatly increase the likelihood that contact occurred between these individuals and the scene. Each associated fiber type is considered to be an independent event and multiple associations undermine a coincidence defense.
Fiber Evidence: Assigning Significance
Whenever a fiber found on the clothing of a victim matches the known fibers of a suspect's clothing, it can be a significant event. Matching dyed synthetic fibers or dyed natural fibers can be very meaningful, whereas the matching of common fibers such as white cotton or blue denim cotton would be less significant. In some situations, however, the presence of white cotton or blue denim cotton may still have some meaning in resolving the truth of an issue. The discovery of cross transfers and multiple fiber transfers between the suspect's clothing and the victim's clothing dramatically increases the likelihood that these two individuals had physical contact.
When a fiber examiner matches a questioned fiber to a known item of clothing, there are only two possible explanations:
The fiber actually originated from the item of clothing, or
The fiber did not originate from the item of clothing.
In order to say that the fiber originated from the item of clothing, the clothing either had to be the only fabric of its type ever produced or still remaining on earth, or the transfer of fibers was directly observed. Since neither of these situations is likely to occur or be known, fiber examiners will conclude that the fibers could have originated from the clothing or that the fibers are consistent with originating from the clothing. The only way to say that a fiber did not originate from a particular item of clothing is to know the actual history of the garment or to have actually observed the fiber transfer from another garment.
It is argued that the large volume of fabric produced reduces the significance of any fiber association discovered in a criminal case. It can never be stated with certainty that a fiber originated from a particular garment because other garments were likely produced using the same fiber type and color. The inability to positively associate a fiber with a particular garment to the exclusion of all other garments, however, does not mean that the fiber association is without value.
When one considers the volume of fabric produced in the world each year, the number of garments of a particular color and fiber type is extremely small. The likelihood of two or more manufacturers duplicating all aspects of the fabric type and color exactly is extremely remote. The large number of dye types and colors that exist in the world, coupled with the unlimited number of possible dye combinations, makes any fiber association by color significant. One must also consider the lifespan of a particular fabric: Only so much of a given fabric of a particular color and fiber type is produced, and it will eventually end up being destroyed or dumped in a landfill.
More than 100 billion pounds of fiber were produced in 1998. Approximately 40 billion pounds of cotton were used to produce textile products during 1998 (Fiber Organon 1999), and although a great many of these fibers were used in the production of clothing, a large amount of cotton fiber was also used for other purposes, such as stuffing and padding material (batting), cotton swabs, and cotton balls. Much of the cotton used in clothing ends up undyed, as in white shirts, underwear, socks, and bed sheets, but often cotton is dyed many different shades of blue, red, green, and yellow. Much of the cotton fabric produced is also print-dyed, which imparts different color characteristics to the surface of the cotton fibers, and some cotton fabrics are dyed in such a way as to vary the color along the length of the fiber. The cotton fibers in fabrics can remain in a rough state or can be processed in different ways, such as by mercerization.
Figures 1 and 2 display generalized production totals for fabric, cotton, cotton fabric of a specific color, and cotton of a specific color. Although the piecharts depicted in these figures represent ratios of production rather than definitive sums, the significance of a cotton fiber match is evident given the nominal amounts of cotton fabric and colored cotton fibers produced compared to the total quantities of fabric and cotton fibers produced, respectively.
Another important consideration is coincidence. When fibers that match the clothing fibers of the suspect are found on the clothing of a victim, two conclusions may be drawn: The fibers originated from the suspect, or the fibers originated from another fabric source that not only was composed of fibers of the exact type and color, but was also in a position to contribute those fibers through primary or secondary contact. The likelihood of encountering identical fibers from the environment of a homicide victim (i.e., from his or her residence or friends) is extremely remote.
References: Table 2: Worldwide demand for certain fibers: 1994 to 1998, Fiber Organon (1999) 70(7): 107.
Douglas W. Deedrick, Unit Chief, Trace Evidence Unit, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Washington, DC
Introduction
Placing a suspect at the scene of a crime is an important element in criminal investigation. This can be achieved through the location of textile fibers similar to those from the victim's clothing or the crime scene on the clothing of the suspect, or through the discovery of fibers like those in the suspect's clothing at the crime scene.
Textile fibers can be exchanged between two individuals, between an individual and an object, and between two objects. When fibers are matched with a specific source (fabric from the victim, suspect, and/or scene), a value is placed on that association. This value is dependent on many factors, including the type of fiber found, the color or variation of color in the fiber, the number of fibers found, the location of fibers at the crime scene or on the victim, and the number of different fibers at the crime scene or on the victim that match the clothing of the suspect.
Whether a fiber is transferred and detected is dependent on the nature and duration of contact between the suspect and the victim or crime scene, the persistence of fibers after the transfer, and the type(s) of fabric involved in contact.
Fiber Evidence
A fiber is the smallest unit of a textile material that has a length many times greater than its diameter. Fibers can occur naturally as plant and animal fibers, but they can also be man-made. A fiber can be spun with other fibers to form a yarn that can be woven or knitted to form a fabric. The type and length of fiber used, the type of spinning method, and the type of fabric construction all affect the transfer of fibers and the significance of fiber associations. This becomes very important when there is a possibility of fiber transfer between a suspect and a victim during the commission of a crime.
As discussed previously, fibers are considered a form of trace evidence that can be transferred from the clothing of a suspect to the clothing of a victim during the commission of a crime. Fibers can also transfer from a fabric source such as a carpet, bed, or furniture at a crime scene. These transfers can either be direct (primary) or indirect (secondary). A primary transfer occurs when a fiber is transferred from a fabric directly onto a victim's clothing, whereas a secondary transfer occurs when already transferred fibers on the clothing of a suspect transfer to the clothing of a victim. An understanding of the mechanics of primary and secondary transfer is important when reconstructing the events of a crime.
When two people come in contact or when contact occurs with an item from the crime scene, the possibility exists that a fiber transfer will take place. This does not mean that a fiber transfer will always take place. Certain types of fabric do not shed well (donor garments), and some fabrics do not hold fibers well (recipient garments). The construction and fiber composition of the fabric, the duration and force of contact, and the condition of the garment with regard to damage are important considerations.
An important consideration is the length of time between the actual physical contact and the collection of clothing items from the suspect or victim. If the victim is immobile, very little fiber loss will take place, whereas the suspect's clothing will lose transferred fibers quickly. The likelihood of finding transferred fibers on the clothing of the suspect a day after the alleged contact may be remote, depending on the subsequent use or handling of that clothing.
Natural Fibers
Many different natural fibers originating from plants and animals are used in the production of fabric. Cotton fibers are the plant fibers most commonly used in textile materials, with the type of cotton, fiber length, and degree of twist contributing to the diversity of these fibers. Processing techniques and color applications also influence the value of cotton fiber identifications.
Other plant fibers used in the production of textile materials include flax (linen), ramie, sisal, jute, hemp, kapok, and coir. The identification of less common plant fibers at a crime scene or on the clothing of a suspect or victim would have increased significance.
The animal fiber most frequently used in the production of textile materials is wool, and the most common wool fibers originate from sheep. The end use of sheep's wool often dictates the fineness or coarseness of woolen fibers: Finer woolen fibers are used in the production of clothing, whereas coarser fibers are found in carpet. Fiber diameter and degree of scale protrusion of the fibers are other important characteristics. Although sheep's wool is most common, woolen fibers from other animals may also be found. These include camel, alpaca, cashmere, mohair, and others. The identification of less common animal fibers at a crime scene or on the clothing of a suspect or victim would have increased
Man-Made Fibers
More than half of all fibers used in the production of textile materials are man-made. Some man-made fibers originate from natural materials such as cotton or wood; others originate from synthetic materials. Polyester and nylon fibers are the most commonly encountered man-made fibers, followed by acrylics, rayons, and acetates. There are also many other less common man-made fibers. The amount of production of a particular man-made fiber and its end use influence the degree of rarity of a given fiber.
The shape of a man-made fiber can determine the value placed on that fiber. The cross section of a man-made fiber can be manufacturer-specific: Some cross sections are more common than others, and some shapes may only be produced for a short period of time. Unusual cross sections encountered through examination can add increased significance to a fiber association.
Fiber Color
Color influences the value given to a particular fiber identification. Often several dyes are used to give a fiber a desired color. Individual fibers can be colored prior to being spun into yarns. Yarns can be dyed, and fabrics made from them can be dyed. Color can also be applied to the surface of fabric, as found in printed fabrics. How color is applied and absorbed along the length of the fiber are important comparison characteristics. Color-fading and discoloration can also lend increased value to a fiber association.
Fiber Number
The number of fibers on the clothing of a victim identified as matching the clothing of a suspect is important in determining actual contact. The greater the number of fibers, the more likely that contact actually occurred between these individuals.
Fiber Location
Where fibers are found also affects the value placed on a particular fiber association. The location of fibers on different areas of the body or on specific items at the crime scene influences the significance of the fiber association.
Fabrics
Fabric Type
How a fabric is constructed affects the number and types of fibers that may be transferred during contact. Tightly woven or knitted fabrics shed less often than loosely knit or woven fabrics; fabrics composed of filament yarns shed less than fabrics composed of spun yarns. Certain types of fibers also tend to transfer more readily.
The age of a fabric also affects the degree of fiber transfers. Some newer fabrics may shed more readily because of an abundance of loosely adhering fibers on the surface of the fabric. Some worn fabrics may have damaged areas that easily shed fibers. Damage to a fabric caused during physical contact greatly increases the likelihood of fiber transfer.
Fabric Source Determination
When a questioned fiber is compared to fibers from a known fabric source, a determination is made as to whether this fiber could have originated from the known fabric. It is not possible to say positively that a fiber originated from a particular fabric, although the inability to positively associate a fiber with a source in no way diminishes the significance of a fiber association. The wide variety of fiber types, fiber colors, and fabric types can make fiber associations very significant because the value of a fiber association depends on the type of fiber, the color of the fiber, the number of fibers transferred, the location of the recovered fibers, and other factors.
It could be very helpful to know the frequency of occurrence of a particular fabric and fiber, or how many fabrics with a particular fiber type and color exist, as well as who owns them. Such information, however, is extremely difficult to obtain. If the manufacturer of a fabric is known, the possibility exists that the number of fabric units produced could also be obtained, but this information is not always available. How many garments like this still exist, and where they are located, are still in question.
Once a particular fiber of a certain type, shape, and color is produced and becomes part of a fabric, it occupies an extremely small portion of the fiber/fabric population. Exceptions to this would be white cotton fibers and blue cotton fibers like those comprising blue jeans. There are other fibers that are common, but the majority of fibers of a particular type and color constitute a very small percentage of the total number of fibers that exist in the world.
Fiber Transfer and Persistence
Textile fibers are transferred to the surface of a fabric either by direct transfer (primary transfer) or indirect transfer (secondary transfer). The likelihood of transfer depends on the types of fabric involved in the contact and the nature and duration of the contact. Studies have shown that transferred fibers are lost rather quickly, depending on the types of fabrics involved and on the movement of the clothing after contact. For example, the clothing of a homicide victim would tend to retain transferred fibers for a longer period of time because the victim is not moving.
Emergency personnel, medical examiners, and investigators must handle the victim's clothing carefully to minimize fiber loss. Fibers transferred onto the clothing of an assault victim or onto the suspect's clothing will be lost if the victim and suspect move about, brush the clothing, or wash the clothing. It is difficult to predict precisely how many fibers might remain on the clothing of a living victim or suspect after a given period of time, but it is important for investigators to retrieve and preserve the clothing from these individuals as soon as possible.
Nature of Contact
The type of physical contact between a suspect and a victim can determine the number of fibers transferred and the value placed on their discovery. Violent physical contact of an extended duration will very often result in numerous fiber transfers.
Multiple Fiber Associations
Multiple fiber types found on different items of clothing or fabric from the suspect, victim, and crime scene greatly increase the likelihood that contact occurred between these individuals and the scene. Each associated fiber type is considered to be an independent event and multiple associations undermine a coincidence defense.
Fiber Evidence: Assigning Significance
Whenever a fiber found on the clothing of a victim matches the known fibers of a suspect's clothing, it can be a significant event. Matching dyed synthetic fibers or dyed natural fibers can be very meaningful, whereas the matching of common fibers such as white cotton or blue denim cotton would be less significant. In some situations, however, the presence of white cotton or blue denim cotton may still have some meaning in resolving the truth of an issue. The discovery of cross transfers and multiple fiber transfers between the suspect's clothing and the victim's clothing dramatically increases the likelihood that these two individuals had physical contact.
When a fiber examiner matches a questioned fiber to a known item of clothing, there are only two possible explanations:
The fiber actually originated from the item of clothing, or
The fiber did not originate from the item of clothing.
In order to say that the fiber originated from the item of clothing, the clothing either had to be the only fabric of its type ever produced or still remaining on earth, or the transfer of fibers was directly observed. Since neither of these situations is likely to occur or be known, fiber examiners will conclude that the fibers could have originated from the clothing or that the fibers are consistent with originating from the clothing. The only way to say that a fiber did not originate from a particular item of clothing is to know the actual history of the garment or to have actually observed the fiber transfer from another garment.
It is argued that the large volume of fabric produced reduces the significance of any fiber association discovered in a criminal case. It can never be stated with certainty that a fiber originated from a particular garment because other garments were likely produced using the same fiber type and color. The inability to positively associate a fiber with a particular garment to the exclusion of all other garments, however, does not mean that the fiber association is without value.
When one considers the volume of fabric produced in the world each year, the number of garments of a particular color and fiber type is extremely small. The likelihood of two or more manufacturers duplicating all aspects of the fabric type and color exactly is extremely remote. The large number of dye types and colors that exist in the world, coupled with the unlimited number of possible dye combinations, makes any fiber association by color significant. One must also consider the lifespan of a particular fabric: Only so much of a given fabric of a particular color and fiber type is produced, and it will eventually end up being destroyed or dumped in a landfill.
More than 100 billion pounds of fiber were produced in 1998. Approximately 40 billion pounds of cotton were used to produce textile products during 1998 (Fiber Organon 1999), and although a great many of these fibers were used in the production of clothing, a large amount of cotton fiber was also used for other purposes, such as stuffing and padding material (batting), cotton swabs, and cotton balls. Much of the cotton used in clothing ends up undyed, as in white shirts, underwear, socks, and bed sheets, but often cotton is dyed many different shades of blue, red, green, and yellow. Much of the cotton fabric produced is also print-dyed, which imparts different color characteristics to the surface of the cotton fibers, and some cotton fabrics are dyed in such a way as to vary the color along the length of the fiber. The cotton fibers in fabrics can remain in a rough state or can be processed in different ways, such as by mercerization.
Figures 1 and 2 display generalized production totals for fabric, cotton, cotton fabric of a specific color, and cotton of a specific color. Although the piecharts depicted in these figures represent ratios of production rather than definitive sums, the significance of a cotton fiber match is evident given the nominal amounts of cotton fabric and colored cotton fibers produced compared to the total quantities of fabric and cotton fibers produced, respectively.
Another important consideration is coincidence. When fibers that match the clothing fibers of the suspect are found on the clothing of a victim, two conclusions may be drawn: The fibers originated from the suspect, or the fibers originated from another fabric source that not only was composed of fibers of the exact type and color, but was also in a position to contribute those fibers through primary or secondary contact. The likelihood of encountering identical fibers from the environment of a homicide victim (i.e., from his or her residence or friends) is extremely remote.
References: Table 2: Worldwide demand for certain fibers: 1994 to 1998, Fiber Organon (1999) 70(7): 107.
Newton and the Laws of Motion
Most people know Sir Isaac Newton for his discovery of gravity, which is thought to have been triggered when he watched an apple drop from a tree. But Newton was also responsible for laying down the fundamental laws of the physical universe: the principles that describe not only how things work but why. These principles are his laws of motion, and they built on the work of great scientific minds who came before him.
Newton was born in Lincolnshire, England, in 1642, only a few years after the death of Galileo Galilei. He showed no particular talent for farming (his family's line of work), but a true genius for mathematics. Building on the work of predecessors such as Galileo, Copernicus, and Kepler, he laid out the principles of his laws of motion, the universal theories that tied the work of these great minds together. He once confessed, "If I have seen further than other men, it is because I stood on the shoulders of giants."
Newton was insecure, badtempered, and sometimes reclusive--not exactly the friendly figure of folklore who was charmed by the fall of an apple. But he explained the physical laws that allow us to walk on the moon and build ever more exciting amusement parks. These are the laws of motion he laid down:
The First Law of Motion: The Law of Inertia
Newton's first law expanded on the work of Galileo. This well-known law states that bodies in motion tend to stay in motion, unless they are acted on by an external force. Also, bodies at rest tend to stay at rest, unless they are acted upon by an external force.
This law governs why a driver is thrown forward in a head-on automobile accident. The car may have stopped, but the driver continues moving forward unless held in place by a seatbelt.
The Second Law of Motion: The Law of Acceleration
Newton's second law explains how the mass of an object and the amount of force applied to an object are related to acceleration. In brief, it says that the greater the mass of an object, the more it resists being moved and therefore the smaller its acceleration will be. It also says that the greater the force applied to an object, the greater the object's acceleration will be.
To understand this law, imagine pushing a pebble, and then imagine pushing a boulder. The pebble has a smaller mass, and so will accelerate faster than the boulder will. Now imagine pushing a boulder with your bare hands and then imagine pushing it with a powerful backhoe. The backhoe is able to exert more force on the boulder, and so will make it accelerate faster than when you pushed it with your bare hands.
The Third Law of Motion: The Law of Interaction
Newton's third law explains how objects interact with other objects. It's based on the idea that every action produces an equal and opposite reaction. But what does this really mean?
Think about the bumper cars. When you hit another car, you exert a force on that car. That's not the end of it, though. Even if you hit a car that is at rest, that car is also exerting a force on you. These forces are opposite, or moving in different directions from each other.
Here's another example. When you jump up in the air, you must first propel yourself by pushing away from the earth (or in other words, pushing the earth away). You can't perceive it, but the earth responds by pushing you away from it. Both your push against the earth and the earth's equal and opposite push against you propel you into the air.
Newton was born in Lincolnshire, England, in 1642, only a few years after the death of Galileo Galilei. He showed no particular talent for farming (his family's line of work), but a true genius for mathematics. Building on the work of predecessors such as Galileo, Copernicus, and Kepler, he laid out the principles of his laws of motion, the universal theories that tied the work of these great minds together. He once confessed, "If I have seen further than other men, it is because I stood on the shoulders of giants."
Newton was insecure, badtempered, and sometimes reclusive--not exactly the friendly figure of folklore who was charmed by the fall of an apple. But he explained the physical laws that allow us to walk on the moon and build ever more exciting amusement parks. These are the laws of motion he laid down:
The First Law of Motion: The Law of Inertia
Newton's first law expanded on the work of Galileo. This well-known law states that bodies in motion tend to stay in motion, unless they are acted on by an external force. Also, bodies at rest tend to stay at rest, unless they are acted upon by an external force.
This law governs why a driver is thrown forward in a head-on automobile accident. The car may have stopped, but the driver continues moving forward unless held in place by a seatbelt.
The Second Law of Motion: The Law of Acceleration
Newton's second law explains how the mass of an object and the amount of force applied to an object are related to acceleration. In brief, it says that the greater the mass of an object, the more it resists being moved and therefore the smaller its acceleration will be. It also says that the greater the force applied to an object, the greater the object's acceleration will be.
To understand this law, imagine pushing a pebble, and then imagine pushing a boulder. The pebble has a smaller mass, and so will accelerate faster than the boulder will. Now imagine pushing a boulder with your bare hands and then imagine pushing it with a powerful backhoe. The backhoe is able to exert more force on the boulder, and so will make it accelerate faster than when you pushed it with your bare hands.
The Third Law of Motion: The Law of Interaction
Newton's third law explains how objects interact with other objects. It's based on the idea that every action produces an equal and opposite reaction. But what does this really mean?
Think about the bumper cars. When you hit another car, you exert a force on that car. That's not the end of it, though. Even if you hit a car that is at rest, that car is also exerting a force on you. These forces are opposite, or moving in different directions from each other.
Here's another example. When you jump up in the air, you must first propel yourself by pushing away from the earth (or in other words, pushing the earth away). You can't perceive it, but the earth responds by pushing you away from it. Both your push against the earth and the earth's equal and opposite push against you propel you into the air.
Blood Stain Pattern Analysis
Bloodstain pattern analysis (BPA) is one of several specialties in the field of forensic science. The use of bloodstains as evidence is not new, however the application of modern science has brought it to a higher level. New technologies, especially advances in DNA analysis, are available for detectives and criminologists to use in solving crimes and apprehending offenders.
The science of bloodstain pattern analysis applies scientific knowledge from other fields to solve practical problems. Bloodstain pattern analysis draws on biology, chemistry, maths, and physics among scientific disciplines. As long as an analyst follows a scientific process, this applied science can produce strong, solid evidence, making it an effective tool for investigators.
Results of BPA
Not every result of BPA will qualify as incontrovertible evidence, but the following are some things a bloodstain pattern analyst may be able to determine conclusively and state as fact:
Location and description of individual stains and patterns,
Mechanism that created the stains,
Direction a blood droplet was traveling (by calculating angles of impact),
Area of origin (location of blow into blood source),
Type of object used in attack (edged, blunt, firearm, etc.),
Minimum number of blows,
The presence of a subject at a scene,
Positioning of the victim, perpetrator, and objects during events, and
The sequence of events.
A basic understanding of blood spatter analysis allows first responding officers and investigators alike to assist in correctly collecting and preserving bloodstain data at the scene. If they know what they have at the scene, then based on their department policy they should know what they need to do next. Bloodstain pattern analysis requires sufficient education and training to be an effective investigative technique, which not all law enforcement officers attending a crime scene will necessarily have.
Bloodstain analysts receive specialized training. The foundation course in bloodstain pattern analysis is the Basic Bloodstain Pattern Analysis Course. This is taught at many government and private institutions. The course criteria were developed by the International Association of Bloodstain Pattern Analysts (IABPA) with the following stated purpose:
A course of instruction designed for investigators, crime scene technicians, forensic technicians, and others involved in criminal and medical-legal investigations and crime scene analysis. The course is intended to develop a fundamental knowledge of the discipline of bloodstain pattern analysis. The course should illustrate to the student basic principals of bloodstain pattern analysis and the practical application of the discipline to actual casework. The course syllabus is not intended to create an “instant” expert.
Beyond this basic course are conferences, seminars, and courses such as the Maths and Physics for BPA and The Advance Bloodstain Pattern Analysis Course, both of which are provided by the Ontario Police College (OPC) and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP). These two institutions also have Bloodstain Analyst Understudy programs. The International Association for Identification (IAI) provides its own certification in bloodstain pattern analysis.
In addition to formal study of the subject, practical experience and experimentation is paramount in the development of a skilled bloodstain pattern analyst.
Bloodstain pattern categories
There are several different thoughts on how to classify and define bloodstain patterns. The following is one accepted way of categorizing them based on the mechanism that created the stain. The three stain groups are: Passive, Projected, and Transfer/Contact. The definitions used below are from the suggested IABPA terminology list.
Passive bloodstains
Passive bloodstains are those stains created by the force of gravity.
Passive Drops - Bloodstain drop(s) created or formed by the force of gravity acting alone.
Drip Pattern - A bloodstain pattern which results from blood dripping into blood.
Flow Pattern - A change in the shape and direction of a bloodstain due to the influence of gravity or movement of the object.
Pool Pattern - A bloodstain pattern formed when a source of blood is stationary for a period of time.
Projected bloodstains
A projected stain occurs when some form of energy has been transferred to a blood source.
Low Velocity Impact Spatter (LVIS) - A bloodstain pattern that is caused by a low velocity impact\force to a blood source.
Medium Velocity Impact Spatter (MVIS) - A bloodstain pattern caused by a medium velocity impact\force to a blood source. A beating typically causes this type of spatter.
High Velocity Impact Spatter (HVIS) - A bloodstain pattern caused by a high velocity impact\force to a blood source such as that produced by gunshot or high-speed machinery.
Cast-Off Pattern - A bloodstain pattern created when blood is released or thrown from a blood-bearing object in motion.
Arterial Spurting (OR Gushing) Pattern - Bloodstain pattern(s) resulting from blood exiting the body under pressure from a breached artery.
Back Spatter - Blood directed back towards the source of energy or force that caused the spatter.
Expiratory Blood - Blood that is blown out of the nose, mouth, or a wound as a result of air pressure and/or air flow which is the propelling force.
Transfer/Contact bloodstains
A transfer or contact stain is produced when an object with blood comes in contact with an object or surface that does not have blood. It may be possible to discern the object that left the blood impression.
Wipe Pattern - A bloodstain pattern created when an object moves through an existing stain, removing and/or altering its appearance.
Swipe Pattern - The transfer of blood from a moving source onto an unstained surface. Direction of travel may be determined by the feathered edge.
As indicated above, there are other terms currently used in BPA and different ways of classifying bloodstain patterns. For example there is a debate over the misnomer of the LVIS, MVIS, and HVIS as it relates to the physical term ‘’velocity’’. A sub-committee of the SWGSTAIN has been tasked with addressing the terminology issues and develop a taxonomy for bloodstain patterns.
"Velocity" impact stains
Contrary to what the name states, the terms low-, medium-, and high-velocity impact spatter do not describe the velocity of the blood droplets as they fly through the air. The variation in the "velocity" is meant to describe the amount of energy transferred to a blood source in order to create the stains. Velocity is a speed (m/s) with a direction. Often the terms force and energy are quoted in conjunction with the unit ft/s or m/s which is incorrect. Force is related to velocity and mass (N or 1 kg •m•s−2). Energy (work) is related to the force exerted on an object (J or N•m or kg•m2•s−2). As indicated above, there has been great debate over these terms and their definitions. Below is one method of differentiating low-, medium-, and high-velocity impact spatter.
Low velocity impact spatter
Low velocity impact spatter (LVIS) is generally produced when objects traveling less than 1.5 m/s come in contact with a blood source. The preponderance of stains is generally larger than 3 mm in diameter.
Medium velocity impact spatter
Medium velocity impact spatter (MVIS) is generally produced when objects traveling between 1.5 m/s and 7.5 m/s come in contact with a blood source. The preponderance of stains is generally between 1 mm and 3 mm in diameter. Mechanisms that could produce this type of pattern include blunt force trauma or cutting/stabbing actions.
High velocity impact spatter
High velocity impact spatter (HVIS) is generally produced when objects traveling greater than 30 m/s come in contact with a blood source. The preponderance of stains is generally smaller than 1 mm in diameter. This pattern often has a mist-like appearance. High velocity patterns may be created by gunshots or explosives, but may also be caused by industrial machinery, coughing, or sneezing.
Blood
Blood is a tissue that is circulated within the body to assist other parts of the body. This connective tissue has specialized cells that allow it to carry out its complex functions. For a healthy person, approximately 8% of their total weight is blood. For a 70 kg individual, this equates to 5.6 litres.
Biological considerations
Blood contains three components suspended within plasma. The three components are erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets.
Erythrocytes - also known as red blood cells, are transporters. The role of erythrocytes is to transport oxygen. To do this it produces great quantities of hemoglobin, which gives it the distinct red colour. Blood that has passed through the heart and been oxygenated (in the arteries) tends to have a brighter shade of red as opposed to blood that is returning to the heart (in the veins). There are about 30 trillion erythrocytes circulating in the human blood at any given time.
Leukocytes - also known as white blood cells, are defenders. The role of leukocytes is to defend the body against harmful bacteria and microorganisms. There are five different types of leukocytes all having different sizes, shapes, structures, and functions. Leukocytes fight infection and disease. There are about 430 billion leukocytes circulating in the human blood at any given time (~1 per 700 erythrocytes).
Platelets - are pieces of larger cells that have broken off in the bone marrow. These bits of cytoplasm are enclosed by a membrane and do not have a nucleus. They play a major role in haemostasis (control of bleeding) by plugging up a breach in a vessel.
Plasma is a yellowish fluid that carries the suspended erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets. It is composed of water (92%), proteins (7%), and other materials such as salts, waste, and hormones, among others. Plasma makes up about 55% of blood. The remaining 45% is blood cells and platelets. Because plasma is lighter than the blood cells and platelets, it can be easily separated. Plasma does not separate from blood cells in the body because it is in a constant state of agitation.
Physical considerations
In physics there are two continuous physical states of matter, solid and fluid. Once blood has left the body it behaves as a fluid and all physical laws apply.
Gravity - is acting on blood (without the body's influence) as soon as it exits the body. Given the right circumstances blood can act according to ballistic theory.
Viscosity - is the amount of internal friction in the fluid. It describes the resistance of a liquid to flow.
Surface tension - is the force that gives the ability to blood to maintain its shape. When two fluids are in contact with each other (blood and air) there are forces attracting all molecules to each other.
Blood spatter flight characteristics
Experiments with blood have shown that a drop of blood tends to form into a sphere in flight rather than the artistic teardrop shape. This is what one would expect of a fluid in freefall. The formation of the sphere is a result of surface tension that binds the molecules together.
This spherical shape of blood in flight is important for the calculation of the angle of impact (incidence) of blood spatter when it hits a surface. That angle will be used to determine the point from which the blood originated which is called the Point of Origin or more appropriately the Area of Origin.
A single spatter of blood is not enough to determine the Area of Origin at a crime scene. The determination of the angles of impact and placement of the Area of Origin should be based on the consideration of a number of stains and preferably stains from opposite sides of the pattern to create the means to triangulate.
Determining angles of impact
As mentioned earlier a blood droplet in freefall has the shape of a sphere. Should the droplet strike a surface and a well-formed stain is produced, an analyst can determine the angle at which this droplet struck the surface. This is based on the relationship between the length of the major axis, minor axis, and the angle of impact.
A well-formed stain is in the shape of an ellipse. Dr. Victor Balthazard, and later Dr. Herbert Leon MacDonell, realized the relationship of the width-length ratio of the ellipse was the function of the sine of the impact angle. Accurately measuring the stain will easily result in the calculation the impact angle.
Angles of Impact
Because of the three dimensional aspect of trajectories there are three angles of impact, , , and . The easiest angle to calculate is gamma ( ). Gamma is simply the angle of the bloodstain path measured from the true vertical (plumb) of the surface (see figure 2 showing plumb line and extended angle from stain.) The next angle that can be quite easily calculated is alpha ( ). Alpha is the impact angle of the bloodstain path moving out from the surface (see figure 2 with alpha at the top by the stain.) The third angle to be calculated is beta ( ). Beta is the angle of the bloodstain path pivoting about the vertical (z) axis (see figure 3 with beta extended to the floor). All three angles are related through trigonometry through the equation quoted below.
Calculating the α angle
= length of ellipse (major axis)
= width of ellipse (minor axis)
= angle of impact
The relationship between these variables is:
Therefore:
Relationship between angles α, β, and γ
Accurately measuring the stain and calculating the angle of impact requires due diligence of the analyst. In the past analysts have used a variety of instruments. Methods currently used include:
Viewing loop with an embedded scale in 0.2 mm increments or better that is placed over the stain. The analyst then uses a scientific calculator or spreadsheet to complete the angle calculations.
Bloodstain Pattern Analysis (BPA) software that superimposes an ellipse over a scaled close-up image of an individual bloodstain. The programs then automatically calculates the angles of impact.
Using software produces a very accurate result that is measurable and reproducible.
Point and area of convergence
To determine the point/area of convergence an analyst has to determine the path the blood droplets travelled. The tangential flight path of individual droplets can be determined by using the angle of impact and the offset angle of the resulting bloodstain. “Stringing” stains is a method of visualizing this. For the purpose of the point of convergence, only the top view of the flight paths is required. Note that this is a two-dimensional (2D) and not a three-dimensional (3D) intersection.
The point of convergence is the intersection of two bloodstain paths, where the stains come from opposite sides of the impact pattern.
The area of convergence is the box formed by the intersection of several stains from opposite sides of the impact pattern.
In the past, some analysts have drawn lines along the major axes of the stains and brought them to an area of convergence on the wall. Instead of using a top-down view, they used a front view. This provides a false point/area of convergence.
Area of origin
The area of origin is the area in three-dimensional space where the blood source was located at the time of the bloodletting incident. The area of origin includes the area of convergence with a third dimension in the z direction. Since the z-axis is perpendicular to the floor, the area of origin has three dimensions and is a volume.
The term point of origin has also been accepted to mean the same thing. However it has been argued, there are problems associated to this term. First, a blood source is not a point source. To produce a point source the mechanism would have to be fixed in three-dimensional space and have an aperture where only a single blood droplet is released at a time, with enough energy to create a pattern. This does not seem likely. Second, bodies are dynamic. Aside from the victim physically moving, skin is elastic and bones break. Once a force is applied to the body there will be an equal and opposite reaction to the force applied by the attacker (Newton's third law of motion). Part of the force will move the blood source, even a millimetre, and change the origin while it is still producing blood. So the source becomes contained in a three-dimensional volume.
As with the area of convergence, the area of origin is easily calculated by using BPA software. There are other longer, mathematical methods of determining the area or origin, one of which is the tangential method.
IABPA definition:
Point (Area) of Origin - The common point (area) in three-dimensional space to which the trajectories of several blood drops can be retraced.
Photography
Crime scene photography has some unique requirements. In the event there is a bloodletting scene, the basics are still required but special attention must be given to the bloodstains. The current means of documenting the scene include, 35 mm (B&W, colour, and specialty film), digital cameras (such as Nikon D70S among others), and video (Hi-8, DV, and other formats). Each method has its pros and cons. Often the scene is documented using multiple methods. (Videography has been included here because it follows the same principles and provides crime scene images.)
There are three types of crime scene photos:
Overall – wide-angle images (28-35 mm range) that capture the scene as it is. This type of image provides anyone who has not been in the scene a good overall layout.
Mid-range – images taken with a normal lens (45-55 mm range) give greater detail than the overall shots. In the case of a bloodletting scene, the mid-range image could capture a single bloodstain pattern.
Close-up – images taken with a macro lens giving the greatest amount of detail. For example, a medium velocity impact pattern can contain thousands of individual stains where there is a preponderance of small stains (1-3 mm in diameter) some of which require individual images.
Many times an analyst cannot attend a bloodletting scene. Therefore, the analyst may have to do all his work based on the crime scene images and notes of the person who attended. An appropriate sized scale should be in overall, mid-range, and close-up images. For overall images the scales should be parallel and perpendicular to the floor. This provides the analyst, and anyone else who looks at the images, a proper perspective on what they are observing. (Note: in some cases overall and mid-range images are taken with and without a scale.)
References
Bevel, Tom; Gardner, Ross M. Bloodstain Pattern Analysis, 2nd Ed. CRC Press 2002
Hueske, Edward E., Shooting Incident Investigation/Reconstruction Training Manual, 2002
IABPA (International Association of Bloodstain Pattern Analysts). Suggested IABPA Terminology List. Retrieved October 2005 from: http://www.iabpa.org/Terminology.pdf
IABPA (International Association of Bloodstain Pattern Analysts). Suggested IABPA Terminology List. Retrieved October 2005 from: http://www.iabpa.org/RevEduc.pdf
James, Stuart H, Eckert, William G. Interpretation of Bloodstain Evidence at Crime Scenes, 2nd Edition, CRC Press 1999.
Solomon, Berg, Martin, & Villee. Biology, 3rd edition. Saunders College Publishing, Fort Worth, 1993.
Sutton, Paulette T., Bloodstain Pattern Interpretation, Short Course Manual, University of Tennessee, Memphis TN 1998
Vennard, John King. Elementary fluid mechanics. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1982.
Popular Culture
Dexter Morgan of the Novel's and Showtime Series is a blood spatter expert for the Miami Police Department. Morgan is also a serial killer.
Catherine Willows is a blood spatter analyst on the CBS series CSI: Crime Scene Investigation
The science of bloodstain pattern analysis applies scientific knowledge from other fields to solve practical problems. Bloodstain pattern analysis draws on biology, chemistry, maths, and physics among scientific disciplines. As long as an analyst follows a scientific process, this applied science can produce strong, solid evidence, making it an effective tool for investigators.
Results of BPA
Not every result of BPA will qualify as incontrovertible evidence, but the following are some things a bloodstain pattern analyst may be able to determine conclusively and state as fact:
Location and description of individual stains and patterns,
Mechanism that created the stains,
Direction a blood droplet was traveling (by calculating angles of impact),
Area of origin (location of blow into blood source),
Type of object used in attack (edged, blunt, firearm, etc.),
Minimum number of blows,
The presence of a subject at a scene,
Positioning of the victim, perpetrator, and objects during events, and
The sequence of events.
A basic understanding of blood spatter analysis allows first responding officers and investigators alike to assist in correctly collecting and preserving bloodstain data at the scene. If they know what they have at the scene, then based on their department policy they should know what they need to do next. Bloodstain pattern analysis requires sufficient education and training to be an effective investigative technique, which not all law enforcement officers attending a crime scene will necessarily have.
Bloodstain analysts receive specialized training. The foundation course in bloodstain pattern analysis is the Basic Bloodstain Pattern Analysis Course. This is taught at many government and private institutions. The course criteria were developed by the International Association of Bloodstain Pattern Analysts (IABPA) with the following stated purpose:
A course of instruction designed for investigators, crime scene technicians, forensic technicians, and others involved in criminal and medical-legal investigations and crime scene analysis. The course is intended to develop a fundamental knowledge of the discipline of bloodstain pattern analysis. The course should illustrate to the student basic principals of bloodstain pattern analysis and the practical application of the discipline to actual casework. The course syllabus is not intended to create an “instant” expert.
Beyond this basic course are conferences, seminars, and courses such as the Maths and Physics for BPA and The Advance Bloodstain Pattern Analysis Course, both of which are provided by the Ontario Police College (OPC) and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP). These two institutions also have Bloodstain Analyst Understudy programs. The International Association for Identification (IAI) provides its own certification in bloodstain pattern analysis.
In addition to formal study of the subject, practical experience and experimentation is paramount in the development of a skilled bloodstain pattern analyst.
Bloodstain pattern categories
There are several different thoughts on how to classify and define bloodstain patterns. The following is one accepted way of categorizing them based on the mechanism that created the stain. The three stain groups are: Passive, Projected, and Transfer/Contact. The definitions used below are from the suggested IABPA terminology list.
Passive bloodstains
Passive bloodstains are those stains created by the force of gravity.
Passive Drops - Bloodstain drop(s) created or formed by the force of gravity acting alone.
Drip Pattern - A bloodstain pattern which results from blood dripping into blood.
Flow Pattern - A change in the shape and direction of a bloodstain due to the influence of gravity or movement of the object.
Pool Pattern - A bloodstain pattern formed when a source of blood is stationary for a period of time.
Projected bloodstains
A projected stain occurs when some form of energy has been transferred to a blood source.
Low Velocity Impact Spatter (LVIS) - A bloodstain pattern that is caused by a low velocity impact\force to a blood source.
Medium Velocity Impact Spatter (MVIS) - A bloodstain pattern caused by a medium velocity impact\force to a blood source. A beating typically causes this type of spatter.
High Velocity Impact Spatter (HVIS) - A bloodstain pattern caused by a high velocity impact\force to a blood source such as that produced by gunshot or high-speed machinery.
Cast-Off Pattern - A bloodstain pattern created when blood is released or thrown from a blood-bearing object in motion.
Arterial Spurting (OR Gushing) Pattern - Bloodstain pattern(s) resulting from blood exiting the body under pressure from a breached artery.
Back Spatter - Blood directed back towards the source of energy or force that caused the spatter.
Expiratory Blood - Blood that is blown out of the nose, mouth, or a wound as a result of air pressure and/or air flow which is the propelling force.
Transfer/Contact bloodstains
A transfer or contact stain is produced when an object with blood comes in contact with an object or surface that does not have blood. It may be possible to discern the object that left the blood impression.
Wipe Pattern - A bloodstain pattern created when an object moves through an existing stain, removing and/or altering its appearance.
Swipe Pattern - The transfer of blood from a moving source onto an unstained surface. Direction of travel may be determined by the feathered edge.
As indicated above, there are other terms currently used in BPA and different ways of classifying bloodstain patterns. For example there is a debate over the misnomer of the LVIS, MVIS, and HVIS as it relates to the physical term ‘’velocity’’. A sub-committee of the SWGSTAIN has been tasked with addressing the terminology issues and develop a taxonomy for bloodstain patterns.
"Velocity" impact stains
Contrary to what the name states, the terms low-, medium-, and high-velocity impact spatter do not describe the velocity of the blood droplets as they fly through the air. The variation in the "velocity" is meant to describe the amount of energy transferred to a blood source in order to create the stains. Velocity is a speed (m/s) with a direction. Often the terms force and energy are quoted in conjunction with the unit ft/s or m/s which is incorrect. Force is related to velocity and mass (N or 1 kg •m•s−2). Energy (work) is related to the force exerted on an object (J or N•m or kg•m2•s−2). As indicated above, there has been great debate over these terms and their definitions. Below is one method of differentiating low-, medium-, and high-velocity impact spatter.
Low velocity impact spatter
Low velocity impact spatter (LVIS) is generally produced when objects traveling less than 1.5 m/s come in contact with a blood source. The preponderance of stains is generally larger than 3 mm in diameter.
Medium velocity impact spatter
Medium velocity impact spatter (MVIS) is generally produced when objects traveling between 1.5 m/s and 7.5 m/s come in contact with a blood source. The preponderance of stains is generally between 1 mm and 3 mm in diameter. Mechanisms that could produce this type of pattern include blunt force trauma or cutting/stabbing actions.
High velocity impact spatter
High velocity impact spatter (HVIS) is generally produced when objects traveling greater than 30 m/s come in contact with a blood source. The preponderance of stains is generally smaller than 1 mm in diameter. This pattern often has a mist-like appearance. High velocity patterns may be created by gunshots or explosives, but may also be caused by industrial machinery, coughing, or sneezing.
Blood
Blood is a tissue that is circulated within the body to assist other parts of the body. This connective tissue has specialized cells that allow it to carry out its complex functions. For a healthy person, approximately 8% of their total weight is blood. For a 70 kg individual, this equates to 5.6 litres.
Biological considerations
Blood contains three components suspended within plasma. The three components are erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets.
Erythrocytes - also known as red blood cells, are transporters. The role of erythrocytes is to transport oxygen. To do this it produces great quantities of hemoglobin, which gives it the distinct red colour. Blood that has passed through the heart and been oxygenated (in the arteries) tends to have a brighter shade of red as opposed to blood that is returning to the heart (in the veins). There are about 30 trillion erythrocytes circulating in the human blood at any given time.
Leukocytes - also known as white blood cells, are defenders. The role of leukocytes is to defend the body against harmful bacteria and microorganisms. There are five different types of leukocytes all having different sizes, shapes, structures, and functions. Leukocytes fight infection and disease. There are about 430 billion leukocytes circulating in the human blood at any given time (~1 per 700 erythrocytes).
Platelets - are pieces of larger cells that have broken off in the bone marrow. These bits of cytoplasm are enclosed by a membrane and do not have a nucleus. They play a major role in haemostasis (control of bleeding) by plugging up a breach in a vessel.
Plasma is a yellowish fluid that carries the suspended erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets. It is composed of water (92%), proteins (7%), and other materials such as salts, waste, and hormones, among others. Plasma makes up about 55% of blood. The remaining 45% is blood cells and platelets. Because plasma is lighter than the blood cells and platelets, it can be easily separated. Plasma does not separate from blood cells in the body because it is in a constant state of agitation.
Physical considerations
In physics there are two continuous physical states of matter, solid and fluid. Once blood has left the body it behaves as a fluid and all physical laws apply.
Gravity - is acting on blood (without the body's influence) as soon as it exits the body. Given the right circumstances blood can act according to ballistic theory.
Viscosity - is the amount of internal friction in the fluid. It describes the resistance of a liquid to flow.
Surface tension - is the force that gives the ability to blood to maintain its shape. When two fluids are in contact with each other (blood and air) there are forces attracting all molecules to each other.
Blood spatter flight characteristics
Experiments with blood have shown that a drop of blood tends to form into a sphere in flight rather than the artistic teardrop shape. This is what one would expect of a fluid in freefall. The formation of the sphere is a result of surface tension that binds the molecules together.
This spherical shape of blood in flight is important for the calculation of the angle of impact (incidence) of blood spatter when it hits a surface. That angle will be used to determine the point from which the blood originated which is called the Point of Origin or more appropriately the Area of Origin.
A single spatter of blood is not enough to determine the Area of Origin at a crime scene. The determination of the angles of impact and placement of the Area of Origin should be based on the consideration of a number of stains and preferably stains from opposite sides of the pattern to create the means to triangulate.
Determining angles of impact
As mentioned earlier a blood droplet in freefall has the shape of a sphere. Should the droplet strike a surface and a well-formed stain is produced, an analyst can determine the angle at which this droplet struck the surface. This is based on the relationship between the length of the major axis, minor axis, and the angle of impact.
A well-formed stain is in the shape of an ellipse. Dr. Victor Balthazard, and later Dr. Herbert Leon MacDonell, realized the relationship of the width-length ratio of the ellipse was the function of the sine of the impact angle. Accurately measuring the stain will easily result in the calculation the impact angle.
Angles of Impact
Because of the three dimensional aspect of trajectories there are three angles of impact, , , and . The easiest angle to calculate is gamma ( ). Gamma is simply the angle of the bloodstain path measured from the true vertical (plumb) of the surface (see figure 2 showing plumb line and extended angle from stain.) The next angle that can be quite easily calculated is alpha ( ). Alpha is the impact angle of the bloodstain path moving out from the surface (see figure 2 with alpha at the top by the stain.) The third angle to be calculated is beta ( ). Beta is the angle of the bloodstain path pivoting about the vertical (z) axis (see figure 3 with beta extended to the floor). All three angles are related through trigonometry through the equation quoted below.
Calculating the α angle
= length of ellipse (major axis)
= width of ellipse (minor axis)
= angle of impact
The relationship between these variables is:
Therefore:
Relationship between angles α, β, and γ
Accurately measuring the stain and calculating the angle of impact requires due diligence of the analyst. In the past analysts have used a variety of instruments. Methods currently used include:
Viewing loop with an embedded scale in 0.2 mm increments or better that is placed over the stain. The analyst then uses a scientific calculator or spreadsheet to complete the angle calculations.
Bloodstain Pattern Analysis (BPA) software that superimposes an ellipse over a scaled close-up image of an individual bloodstain. The programs then automatically calculates the angles of impact.
Using software produces a very accurate result that is measurable and reproducible.
Point and area of convergence
To determine the point/area of convergence an analyst has to determine the path the blood droplets travelled. The tangential flight path of individual droplets can be determined by using the angle of impact and the offset angle of the resulting bloodstain. “Stringing” stains is a method of visualizing this. For the purpose of the point of convergence, only the top view of the flight paths is required. Note that this is a two-dimensional (2D) and not a three-dimensional (3D) intersection.
The point of convergence is the intersection of two bloodstain paths, where the stains come from opposite sides of the impact pattern.
The area of convergence is the box formed by the intersection of several stains from opposite sides of the impact pattern.
In the past, some analysts have drawn lines along the major axes of the stains and brought them to an area of convergence on the wall. Instead of using a top-down view, they used a front view. This provides a false point/area of convergence.
Area of origin
The area of origin is the area in three-dimensional space where the blood source was located at the time of the bloodletting incident. The area of origin includes the area of convergence with a third dimension in the z direction. Since the z-axis is perpendicular to the floor, the area of origin has three dimensions and is a volume.
The term point of origin has also been accepted to mean the same thing. However it has been argued, there are problems associated to this term. First, a blood source is not a point source. To produce a point source the mechanism would have to be fixed in three-dimensional space and have an aperture where only a single blood droplet is released at a time, with enough energy to create a pattern. This does not seem likely. Second, bodies are dynamic. Aside from the victim physically moving, skin is elastic and bones break. Once a force is applied to the body there will be an equal and opposite reaction to the force applied by the attacker (Newton's third law of motion). Part of the force will move the blood source, even a millimetre, and change the origin while it is still producing blood. So the source becomes contained in a three-dimensional volume.
As with the area of convergence, the area of origin is easily calculated by using BPA software. There are other longer, mathematical methods of determining the area or origin, one of which is the tangential method.
IABPA definition:
Point (Area) of Origin - The common point (area) in three-dimensional space to which the trajectories of several blood drops can be retraced.
Photography
Crime scene photography has some unique requirements. In the event there is a bloodletting scene, the basics are still required but special attention must be given to the bloodstains. The current means of documenting the scene include, 35 mm (B&W, colour, and specialty film), digital cameras (such as Nikon D70S among others), and video (Hi-8, DV, and other formats). Each method has its pros and cons. Often the scene is documented using multiple methods. (Videography has been included here because it follows the same principles and provides crime scene images.)
There are three types of crime scene photos:
Overall – wide-angle images (28-35 mm range) that capture the scene as it is. This type of image provides anyone who has not been in the scene a good overall layout.
Mid-range – images taken with a normal lens (45-55 mm range) give greater detail than the overall shots. In the case of a bloodletting scene, the mid-range image could capture a single bloodstain pattern.
Close-up – images taken with a macro lens giving the greatest amount of detail. For example, a medium velocity impact pattern can contain thousands of individual stains where there is a preponderance of small stains (1-3 mm in diameter) some of which require individual images.
Many times an analyst cannot attend a bloodletting scene. Therefore, the analyst may have to do all his work based on the crime scene images and notes of the person who attended. An appropriate sized scale should be in overall, mid-range, and close-up images. For overall images the scales should be parallel and perpendicular to the floor. This provides the analyst, and anyone else who looks at the images, a proper perspective on what they are observing. (Note: in some cases overall and mid-range images are taken with and without a scale.)
References
Bevel, Tom; Gardner, Ross M. Bloodstain Pattern Analysis, 2nd Ed. CRC Press 2002
Hueske, Edward E., Shooting Incident Investigation/Reconstruction Training Manual, 2002
IABPA (International Association of Bloodstain Pattern Analysts). Suggested IABPA Terminology List. Retrieved October 2005 from: http://www.iabpa.org/Terminology.pdf
IABPA (International Association of Bloodstain Pattern Analysts). Suggested IABPA Terminology List. Retrieved October 2005 from: http://www.iabpa.org/RevEduc.pdf
James, Stuart H, Eckert, William G. Interpretation of Bloodstain Evidence at Crime Scenes, 2nd Edition, CRC Press 1999.
Solomon, Berg, Martin, & Villee. Biology, 3rd edition. Saunders College Publishing, Fort Worth, 1993.
Sutton, Paulette T., Bloodstain Pattern Interpretation, Short Course Manual, University of Tennessee, Memphis TN 1998
Vennard, John King. Elementary fluid mechanics. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1982.
Popular Culture
Dexter Morgan of the Novel's and Showtime Series is a blood spatter expert for the Miami Police Department. Morgan is also a serial killer.
Catherine Willows is a blood spatter analyst on the CBS series CSI: Crime Scene Investigation
1888 Hail Storm
April 30, 1888 -- Orange-sized hail reported in India -- A hail storm devastates the farming town of Moradabad, India, killing 230 people and many more farm animals on this day in 1888. Sixteen others died in nearby Bareilly. In the Central Plains region of Uttar Pradesh, March and April are the prime seasons for hail. However, the hail storm that struck on April 30, 1888, was far more intense than usual and is now the stuff of legend in India. The hail was accompanied by strong winds that toppled many structures and homes in the area. Although it occurred at midday, the storm brought clouds that were so dark and thick that people reported that it seemed like night. There was no warning system in place at the time, so the area’s many farmers were out working their fields when the storm began. Most of the victims died instantly when hail the size of oranges rained down from the sky, striking them. There were reports that the hail accumulated up to 2 feet high in some spots. Thousands of farm animals were also killed by the sudden hail storm. More advanced meteorology and advance-warning systems now help to prevent such storms from taking so many lives.
Outlaw Dick Fellows
May 16, 1881
Outlaw Dick Fellows is released
Dick Fellows, an inept horseman but persistent outlaw, becomes a free man after spending five years in the San Quentin prison. Like many western bandits, Fellows drifted into life of crime when his efforts to make an honest living failed or provided only a poor income. Born George Lyttle in Kentucky in 1846, he came from an upstanding family and planned to become a lawyer. The outbreak of the Civil War put his ambitions on hold, though. While still in his teens, he fought with the Confederate Army until he was captured in 1863 and spent the rest of the war in a northern prison camp. After his release, he returned home and attempted to obtain a license to practice law, but his fondness for hard drinking apparently interfered.
With few opportunities available to him in Kentucky, Fellows headed West. He traveled to California in 1867, but failed to prosper there either. Low on funds, he began robbing stagecoaches near Los Angeles and adopted the alias Dick Fellows. Fellows found that robbing stages provided a reasonably good income, but he fled when lawmen began to close in on him. In an effort to go straight, he and a partner bought 600 hogs, but a fire burned the operation to the ground.
Fellows again turned to robbing stages, concocting a plan to hold up a coach carrying Wells Fargo's chief detective, James B. Hume. A man of such importance, Fellows reasoned, must be escorting a major shipment of gold or money. In fact, Fellows was right--the coach was carrying $240,000. However, he missed his chance to rob the stage when the horse he had stolen threw him, knocking him cold for several hours. Refusing to walk away with nothing, Fellows stole a second horse and held up a different stage. He succeeded in taking the heavy treasure box, but only then realized he had forgotten to bring the tools he needed to break it open. When he tried to lift the box up on his horse's saddle, he startled his mount and it, too, raced off, leaving him alone in the wilds with night falling.
Fellows had little choice but to lug the heavy box by hand. In the darkness, he fell over a high bluff, knocking himself unconscious for the second time that day. When he came to, he discovered that his left leg was broken and the treasure box had crushed his left foot. He managed to limp to a nearby construction camp, where he fashioned a crude pair of crutches and used a stolen axe to break open the box. The $1800 he found inside was trivial compared to the $240,000 he had missed, but it was better than nothing.
Unfortunately, the luckless Fellows never had a chance to spend his ill-gotten gains. The Wells Fargo detectives soon tracked him down, and he was sentenced to eight years in the San Quentin prison. Pardoned and released on this day in 1881, Fellows made yet another stab at earning an honest living, working briefly for a newspaper and even teaching Spanish for a time. Again, the money was inadequate to Fellow's tastes, and he returned to robbing stages. By the time he was recaptured in February 1882, Fellows had become a celebrity. While in jail in San Jose, he received more than 700 visitors.
Sentenced to life in Folsom Prison, Fellows devoted part of his time there to teaching a course in moral philosophy to his fellow inmates. Pardoned in 1908 at the age of 62, he returned to his home in Kentucky and faded from the historical record. It is tempting to lampoon Fellows for his inept horsemanship and astonishingly bad luck, but as one biographer noted, "For daring, he is the equal of any outlaws with whom I ever had dealings."
Outlaw Dick Fellows is released
Dick Fellows, an inept horseman but persistent outlaw, becomes a free man after spending five years in the San Quentin prison. Like many western bandits, Fellows drifted into life of crime when his efforts to make an honest living failed or provided only a poor income. Born George Lyttle in Kentucky in 1846, he came from an upstanding family and planned to become a lawyer. The outbreak of the Civil War put his ambitions on hold, though. While still in his teens, he fought with the Confederate Army until he was captured in 1863 and spent the rest of the war in a northern prison camp. After his release, he returned home and attempted to obtain a license to practice law, but his fondness for hard drinking apparently interfered.
With few opportunities available to him in Kentucky, Fellows headed West. He traveled to California in 1867, but failed to prosper there either. Low on funds, he began robbing stagecoaches near Los Angeles and adopted the alias Dick Fellows. Fellows found that robbing stages provided a reasonably good income, but he fled when lawmen began to close in on him. In an effort to go straight, he and a partner bought 600 hogs, but a fire burned the operation to the ground.
Fellows again turned to robbing stages, concocting a plan to hold up a coach carrying Wells Fargo's chief detective, James B. Hume. A man of such importance, Fellows reasoned, must be escorting a major shipment of gold or money. In fact, Fellows was right--the coach was carrying $240,000. However, he missed his chance to rob the stage when the horse he had stolen threw him, knocking him cold for several hours. Refusing to walk away with nothing, Fellows stole a second horse and held up a different stage. He succeeded in taking the heavy treasure box, but only then realized he had forgotten to bring the tools he needed to break it open. When he tried to lift the box up on his horse's saddle, he startled his mount and it, too, raced off, leaving him alone in the wilds with night falling.
Fellows had little choice but to lug the heavy box by hand. In the darkness, he fell over a high bluff, knocking himself unconscious for the second time that day. When he came to, he discovered that his left leg was broken and the treasure box had crushed his left foot. He managed to limp to a nearby construction camp, where he fashioned a crude pair of crutches and used a stolen axe to break open the box. The $1800 he found inside was trivial compared to the $240,000 he had missed, but it was better than nothing.
Unfortunately, the luckless Fellows never had a chance to spend his ill-gotten gains. The Wells Fargo detectives soon tracked him down, and he was sentenced to eight years in the San Quentin prison. Pardoned and released on this day in 1881, Fellows made yet another stab at earning an honest living, working briefly for a newspaper and even teaching Spanish for a time. Again, the money was inadequate to Fellow's tastes, and he returned to robbing stages. By the time he was recaptured in February 1882, Fellows had become a celebrity. While in jail in San Jose, he received more than 700 visitors.
Sentenced to life in Folsom Prison, Fellows devoted part of his time there to teaching a course in moral philosophy to his fellow inmates. Pardoned in 1908 at the age of 62, he returned to his home in Kentucky and faded from the historical record. It is tempting to lampoon Fellows for his inept horsemanship and astonishingly bad luck, but as one biographer noted, "For daring, he is the equal of any outlaws with whom I ever had dealings."
Writing Advice on pacing
Here is the question for the authors for November:
Quick, intense and varied pacing is an intrinsic element in every Harlequin Intrigue. How do you create that strong sense of pacing to build the tension and keep the reader turning the pages?
http://www.intrigueauthors.com/newsletters/Newsletter1106.html
B J Daniels: Ah pacing. For me, it's a combination of keeping the story moving forward but also building the suspense. If that means I have to kill someone, well then I'm always happy to do it. :) The big thing is not getting bogged down in the details. If there is any rule of thumb I think it would be to remember it's all about the story. As my Uncle Jack used to say, "If you're going to tell a story, make it good (exaggeration and lying encouraged) or don't bother."
Delores Fossen: I think so many things go into solid pacing in an Intrigue. It helps to start with a strong, compelling plot and then continue to escalate the stakes for both the romance and the suspense/mystery. Then, I like to keep the flow of clues, danger and romance coming hard and fast so that the reader doesn't have time to put down the book. I also try to end each chapter in such a way that the reader will want to continue reading to find out what's going to happen. With the exception of the last chapter, I don't use the chapter ends for resolutions but rather new twists and even mini-cliffhangers. In my latest Intrigue, Covert Conception, there's a lot of action and physical danger since someone is trying to kill the hero and heroine--so I had a great opportunity for fast pacing with lots of twists.
Mallory Kane: Pacing is one of those ethereal concepts that is obvious when it's wrong, but is very difficult to describe. I believe successful books and stories have a rhythm. Part of this rhythm comes from the length of the sentences, the vocabulary the characters use, the sense of immediacy that derives from using the correct verb or verb tense,. Part of it comes from the story. So pacing is a combination of what you write and how you write it. I love to speed up the action by using short, explosive sentences that hopefully pull the reader into the moment. Then at the high point of the climax--when all seems lost--it's often fun (and effective) to slow the action in the point of view of the character--think of the feeling people describe when their car loses traction and spins. It's scary and potentially deadly, but it unfolds as if in slow motion. Another trick I love is to end a chapter in the middle of an action scene or intense argument or conversation--usually between the hero and heroine. Hopefully the reader won't be able to stop reading until she finds out how the other character is going to respond.
Sylvie Kurtz: In Pull of the Moon (December 2006) part of the tension comes from the secret Nick holds and Valerie needs to uncover. The closer she comes to it, the more Nick has to hold back, the more they prod and push, the more it gives the villain a chance to use that lack of trust toward his own end. And hopefully the tension that the situation creates keeps the reader turning those pages.
Julie Miller: The main thing I try to do to keep pacing moving at a fast clip is to end each scene with a hook. That hook can be a question, a tense moment in the action (aka Perils of Pauline), an emotional revelation, cryptic or character-revealing dialogue, finding a clue or dead body, etc. That trick draws the reader in and, hopefully, makes them eager to turn the page and keep reading. Some of my scenes are purposely slower, meaning less intense emotionally and action-wise, to allow the reader to catch her breath and relax a bit so that I can hit her with something new and build the tension and increase the pacing again. If the entire story is wham-bam, then it becomes like a monotone (all the same) and the reader begins to tune things out. Think of good Intrigue pacing as a series of mountain tops, with the rises increasing as the book nears its climax, but with those little, well-placed drop-offs to let the reader catch her breath.
An old writing teacher's trick to speed or slow the pacing is to write short, concise sentences (even fragments) to speed things up, and longer, more complex sentences to slow things down. In my January 07 Intrigue, Beast in the Tower, the heroine believes her brother is in danger and follows to help him. I spend some time describing the scenery and people around her in that dark, vaguely unfriendly bar--that's the breather. But I follow it with an intense, deadly confrontation scene. That one is loaded with short sentences, action verbs, and even fragments to create that fast-paced intensity.
Ann Voss Peterson: In my opinion, the intense pace of Intrigues is what makes them the greatest books to read and write. I keep my pacing strong by throwing my characters into a bad situation and then making things get more and more desperate from there. If the thing my hero and heroine love most in the world is at stake, they will go through anything to save it. And I hope if my characters feel strongly enough, the reader will, too! In my November Intrigue, Critical Exposure (part of the Security Breach series), Echo Sloane is desperate to find her brother. And when her baby is kidnapped and the ransom demanded is her missing brother, her situation grows even more desperate. Luckily Detective Rand McClellan, a flinty-eyed police detective with his own urgent agenda, can help!
Joanna Wayne: Pacing is one of those things I feel more than think about, almost a sixth sense. But when I'm teaching classes I emphasize the importance of constantly escalating the danger and the romance. Every scene must move the story along by intensifying the development of the relationship and adding new twists to the mystery. Great chapter endings also add to good pacing. And always remember that even if the characters think the danger is over, the reader must always know it's imminent and inevitable. In Maverick Christmas, my November Intrigue, I also used the four children to increase the suspense and to enrich the characters personalities. While the story was heartwarming and occasionally humorous, I tried to make sure the danger never let up.
Rebecca York: I think that people who become writers absorb principles and techniques from the books they read. As a kid, I read a lot of science fiction, fantasy and mystery–all with fast-paced plots. When I began my own career, those were the kind of stories I wanted to write. I knew what had worked for me as a reader, and I tried to do those same things in my own writing. Of course, as I gained experience, I got better at it. I learned, for example, that sometimes you have to slow down the pace–to create the full effect for the reader. What I mean is that if you go through an action sequence too quickly, the reader will miss a lot of the impact. I also learned that the most important thing about any plot element is tying the action to the emotions of the character. It doesn’t matter how exciting a chase or a knife fight or escape from death you write. It won’t grab the reader unless she feels the hopes and fears of the characters you’ve created.
Quick, intense and varied pacing is an intrinsic element in every Harlequin Intrigue. How do you create that strong sense of pacing to build the tension and keep the reader turning the pages?
http://www.intrigueauthors.com/newsletters/Newsletter1106.html
B J Daniels: Ah pacing. For me, it's a combination of keeping the story moving forward but also building the suspense. If that means I have to kill someone, well then I'm always happy to do it. :) The big thing is not getting bogged down in the details. If there is any rule of thumb I think it would be to remember it's all about the story. As my Uncle Jack used to say, "If you're going to tell a story, make it good (exaggeration and lying encouraged) or don't bother."
Delores Fossen: I think so many things go into solid pacing in an Intrigue. It helps to start with a strong, compelling plot and then continue to escalate the stakes for both the romance and the suspense/mystery. Then, I like to keep the flow of clues, danger and romance coming hard and fast so that the reader doesn't have time to put down the book. I also try to end each chapter in such a way that the reader will want to continue reading to find out what's going to happen. With the exception of the last chapter, I don't use the chapter ends for resolutions but rather new twists and even mini-cliffhangers. In my latest Intrigue, Covert Conception, there's a lot of action and physical danger since someone is trying to kill the hero and heroine--so I had a great opportunity for fast pacing with lots of twists.
Mallory Kane: Pacing is one of those ethereal concepts that is obvious when it's wrong, but is very difficult to describe. I believe successful books and stories have a rhythm. Part of this rhythm comes from the length of the sentences, the vocabulary the characters use, the sense of immediacy that derives from using the correct verb or verb tense,. Part of it comes from the story. So pacing is a combination of what you write and how you write it. I love to speed up the action by using short, explosive sentences that hopefully pull the reader into the moment. Then at the high point of the climax--when all seems lost--it's often fun (and effective) to slow the action in the point of view of the character--think of the feeling people describe when their car loses traction and spins. It's scary and potentially deadly, but it unfolds as if in slow motion. Another trick I love is to end a chapter in the middle of an action scene or intense argument or conversation--usually between the hero and heroine. Hopefully the reader won't be able to stop reading until she finds out how the other character is going to respond.
Sylvie Kurtz: In Pull of the Moon (December 2006) part of the tension comes from the secret Nick holds and Valerie needs to uncover. The closer she comes to it, the more Nick has to hold back, the more they prod and push, the more it gives the villain a chance to use that lack of trust toward his own end. And hopefully the tension that the situation creates keeps the reader turning those pages.
Julie Miller: The main thing I try to do to keep pacing moving at a fast clip is to end each scene with a hook. That hook can be a question, a tense moment in the action (aka Perils of Pauline), an emotional revelation, cryptic or character-revealing dialogue, finding a clue or dead body, etc. That trick draws the reader in and, hopefully, makes them eager to turn the page and keep reading. Some of my scenes are purposely slower, meaning less intense emotionally and action-wise, to allow the reader to catch her breath and relax a bit so that I can hit her with something new and build the tension and increase the pacing again. If the entire story is wham-bam, then it becomes like a monotone (all the same) and the reader begins to tune things out. Think of good Intrigue pacing as a series of mountain tops, with the rises increasing as the book nears its climax, but with those little, well-placed drop-offs to let the reader catch her breath.
An old writing teacher's trick to speed or slow the pacing is to write short, concise sentences (even fragments) to speed things up, and longer, more complex sentences to slow things down. In my January 07 Intrigue, Beast in the Tower, the heroine believes her brother is in danger and follows to help him. I spend some time describing the scenery and people around her in that dark, vaguely unfriendly bar--that's the breather. But I follow it with an intense, deadly confrontation scene. That one is loaded with short sentences, action verbs, and even fragments to create that fast-paced intensity.
Ann Voss Peterson: In my opinion, the intense pace of Intrigues is what makes them the greatest books to read and write. I keep my pacing strong by throwing my characters into a bad situation and then making things get more and more desperate from there. If the thing my hero and heroine love most in the world is at stake, they will go through anything to save it. And I hope if my characters feel strongly enough, the reader will, too! In my November Intrigue, Critical Exposure (part of the Security Breach series), Echo Sloane is desperate to find her brother. And when her baby is kidnapped and the ransom demanded is her missing brother, her situation grows even more desperate. Luckily Detective Rand McClellan, a flinty-eyed police detective with his own urgent agenda, can help!
Joanna Wayne: Pacing is one of those things I feel more than think about, almost a sixth sense. But when I'm teaching classes I emphasize the importance of constantly escalating the danger and the romance. Every scene must move the story along by intensifying the development of the relationship and adding new twists to the mystery. Great chapter endings also add to good pacing. And always remember that even if the characters think the danger is over, the reader must always know it's imminent and inevitable. In Maverick Christmas, my November Intrigue, I also used the four children to increase the suspense and to enrich the characters personalities. While the story was heartwarming and occasionally humorous, I tried to make sure the danger never let up.
Rebecca York: I think that people who become writers absorb principles and techniques from the books they read. As a kid, I read a lot of science fiction, fantasy and mystery–all with fast-paced plots. When I began my own career, those were the kind of stories I wanted to write. I knew what had worked for me as a reader, and I tried to do those same things in my own writing. Of course, as I gained experience, I got better at it. I learned, for example, that sometimes you have to slow down the pace–to create the full effect for the reader. What I mean is that if you go through an action sequence too quickly, the reader will miss a lot of the impact. I also learned that the most important thing about any plot element is tying the action to the emotions of the character. It doesn’t matter how exciting a chase or a knife fight or escape from death you write. It won’t grab the reader unless she feels the hopes and fears of the characters you’ve created.
Writing Advice on Heroes
Here is the question for the authors for December:
There are no heroes like Intrigue heroes. What attracts you to an Intrigue hero?
http://www.intrigueauthors.com/newsletters/Newsletter1206.html
Mallory Kane: Ah--heroes. What's not to love? Intrigue is one of my favorite lines for fabulous heroes. You can count on an Intrigue hero to be there when it counts, to treat the heroine with honor and respect, to protect her at any cost, even his own life, and to always do the right thing, even if it starts out looking like the wrong thing. In Six-Gun Investigation, my January 07 Intrigue (first book in the Silver Star of Texas three book series), Zane McKinney only wants to find out who killed the heroine's sister and mother, until the heroine is targeted. When that happens he's all about protecting her.
Sylvie Kurtz: What's attractive to me is the values that these heroes embody. In Pull of the Moon, Nick is protective and loyal. He's willing to do anything to find the truth, even if the truth doesn't turn out to be what he wants and then he deals with it.
Julie Miller: Although there are lots of things about an Intrigue that make them special, I think the heroes might just be the number one thing that makes me love them so much. I find something unerringly masculine about a protector--whether he's using his brains or his brawn--or both. An Intrigue hero is that man who takes the risk, the man who goes beyond what is expected, the man who takes that extra step (or bullet in the shoulder) to protect what he loves and believes in. An Intrigue hero at his core is a man of honor and justice. Even the bad boys and tortured souls and reclusive brainiacs (like Dr. Damon Sinclair in my January 07 Intrigue, Beast in the Tower) will step up and do the right thing when the chips are down and things look their darkest. These are the larger-than-life action heroes of romance. These are the tough guys who fall hard when they find love, and who become better men because of it. These are the men you want on your side when the bad guys are in pursuit and justice is hard to come by. And--sure--the pecs and the street savvy and the occasional uniform don't hurt, either.
Dana Marton: A heroine whom they would protect even at the cost of their lives. They are capable and intelligent, courageous. Need I say more? If I had to be stranded in a jungle somewhere or in the desert or found myself in the middle of a hostile situation, I would definitely want an Intrigue hero by my side. In my Dec. 06 release, Undercover Sheik, the hero saves the heroine from the desert bandits who are holding her hostage. He is dark and mysterious, a tortured hero with secrets in his past. He is brave and honorable above all. That's what I like about Intrigue heroes.
Ann Voss Peterson: I love a hero who believes in protecting his heroine whether she wants protection or not. A guy who believes in doing the right thing even when the "right thing" isn't so easy to figure out. Intrigue heroes have to face tough situations, dark pasts, and strong heroines that only serve to make them stronger. And that makes for the kind of exciting and challenging story that I love.
There are no heroes like Intrigue heroes. What attracts you to an Intrigue hero?
http://www.intrigueauthors.com/newsletters/Newsletter1206.html
Mallory Kane: Ah--heroes. What's not to love? Intrigue is one of my favorite lines for fabulous heroes. You can count on an Intrigue hero to be there when it counts, to treat the heroine with honor and respect, to protect her at any cost, even his own life, and to always do the right thing, even if it starts out looking like the wrong thing. In Six-Gun Investigation, my January 07 Intrigue (first book in the Silver Star of Texas three book series), Zane McKinney only wants to find out who killed the heroine's sister and mother, until the heroine is targeted. When that happens he's all about protecting her.
Sylvie Kurtz: What's attractive to me is the values that these heroes embody. In Pull of the Moon, Nick is protective and loyal. He's willing to do anything to find the truth, even if the truth doesn't turn out to be what he wants and then he deals with it.
Julie Miller: Although there are lots of things about an Intrigue that make them special, I think the heroes might just be the number one thing that makes me love them so much. I find something unerringly masculine about a protector--whether he's using his brains or his brawn--or both. An Intrigue hero is that man who takes the risk, the man who goes beyond what is expected, the man who takes that extra step (or bullet in the shoulder
Dana Marton: A heroine whom they would protect even at the cost of their lives. They are capable and intelligent, courageous. Need I say more? If I had to be stranded in a jungle somewhere or in the desert or found myself in the middle of a hostile situation, I would definitely want an Intrigue hero by my side. In my Dec. 06 release, Undercover Sheik, the hero saves the heroine from the desert bandits who are holding her hostage. He is dark and mysterious, a tortured hero with secrets in his past. He is brave and honorable above all. That's what I like about Intrigue heroes.
Ann Voss Peterson: I love a hero who believes in protecting his heroine whether she wants protection or not. A guy who believes in doing the right thing even when the "right thing" isn't so easy to figure out. Intrigue heroes have to face tough situations, dark pasts, and strong heroines that only serve to make them stronger. And that makes for the kind of exciting and challenging story that I love.
Writing Advice on "intrigue" genre storylines
What traditional romantic hooks or storylines do you think work well in an Intrigue?
Do you use one in an upcoming book? Tell us about it.
http://www.intrigueauthors.com/newsletters/Newsletter0107.html
B. J. Daniels: Amazingly, the classic hooks work. I guess that's why they're classics. My February book, Big Sky Standoff, is set in Montana, involves horses and an outlaw. My heroine is a stock detective who is out to catch a band of rustlers. She teams up with my outlaw, the man she sent to prison for rustling. It has a lot of the classic hooks: western setting, outlaw/bad boy, lack of trust/hero in question,
opposites attract.
Delores Fossen: I think most traditional hooks and storylines work well with Intrigue, but one of my favorites is the "cowboy cop." There's just something special about a Stetson wearing lawman. In my upcoming February Intrigue, Trace Evidence in Tarrant County, the hero, Sgt. Sloan McKinney is a Texas Ranger, the ultimate cowboy cop.
Mallory Kane: I love the traditional hooks for romance--protector hero, marriage of convenience (or forced proximity,) woman in jeopardy, secret baby, amnesia--I could go on. In my latest book for Intrigue, Six-Gun Investigation, January 2007, my hero is a cowboy, a Texas Ranger. My heroine is definitely in jeopardy, and to protect her, the hero must keep her close to him.
Susan Kearney: In my upcoming Feb release for Tor, Island Heat, I combined a suspense story with paranormal elements. Just like the many Intrigues I wrote for Harlequin, my hero is hot and my heroine is sympathetic. The hook, that the heroine is the only one who can stop the hero's missions--is one that works well in suspense. She must stay close to the hero to find out what he's doing--and how she can stop a man who dominates with otherworldly powers. Set on Earth, Island Heat is first and foremost a powerful love story.
Sylvie Kurtz: Traditional hooks of women-in-jeopardy, protector-hero, amnesia and forced proximity seem to work well for Intrigues to bring out both the romance and the suspense that are key elements. You'll find the woman-in-jeopardy, protector-hero and forgotten memories hooks at the heart of Pull of the Moon (Dec. 2006)--those hooks bring out the gothic feel of the story. For Spirit of a Hunter (The Seekers, Book 5, July 2007), I used woman-in-jeopardy, protector-hero and forced proximity to take my characters on a wild adventure through the White Mountains of New Hampshire.
Julie Miller: I think just about any traditional romantic hook can work in an Intrigue, if you remember to give it a unique, suspenseful twist. Some traditional hooks I've used include amnesia (Unsanctioned Memories--imagine forgetting the face of the man who raped you and left you for dead, and knowing that he's coming after you to finish the job! Scary, not knowing the threat even when he's looking you in the eye!) and, of course, heroes in uniform. Cops and their various, related professions are what my Taylor Clan and Precinct books are all about. Books about brothers have worked especially well for me, too. Again, check out the Taylor Clan--it's cool to have a hero who can protect you and solve the case--it's even cooler when he has a whole family of heroes who can back him up. In my January 2007 Intrigue, Beast in the Tower, I use the traditional Beauty & the Beast storyline--reclusive, cursed hero and the spunky, good-hearted woman whose love and belief in him can restore his own heart and faith in himself. The unique twist in Beast is that the hero is a mad-scientist billionaire instead of a prince, and instead of having a sorceress and magic to overcome--he has outside business adversaries trying to steal his formulas and take over his company. So yeah, I imagine you could take any traditional storyline or hook and make it work for Intrigue--as long as you give it a unique twist and make the tone of the story right for the line.
Dani Sinclair: Any and all traditional hooks work well in Intrigue and I use many of them. The trick is to take something familiar and give it a twist. Most readers seem to enjoy finding stories that hold a special appeal for them whether it's an amnesia story or a marriage of convenience or a hidden identity or some other familiar hook. When my editor suggested a series of books with fairy tale story lines I gave her Secret Cinderella and Beautiful Beast. My February Intrigue is yet another one. In Sleeping Beauty Suspect the hero rescues an unconscious heroine after battling his way to her side. He places a gentle kiss on her forehead as he's leaving and she opens her eyes. But instead of the end, this is only the beginning. Happy New Year everyone!
Rebecca York: Classic hooks work well in Intrigues. I love using them because these stories are tailor-made for larger than life characters. In my upcoming Intrigue, Royal Lockdown (June 07), I've got two of these characters--a self-made man, Shane Peters, who's become one of the country's leading security experts, and Princess Ariana LeBron who end up fighting for their lives against a gang of terrorists who will stop at nothing to kill them. Their terrifying trip through a Boston blackout almost ends in disaster. But Shane and Ariana learn to work together to save their lives. Along the way, they forge an unlikely bond. But can love overcome the differences between these two people who never would have met under ordinary circumstances?
Do you use one in an upcoming book? Tell us about it.
http://www.intrigueauthors.com/newsletters/Newsletter0107.html
B. J. Daniels: Amazingly, the classic hooks work. I guess that's why they're classics. My February book, Big Sky Standoff, is set in Montana, involves horses and an outlaw. My heroine is a stock detective who is out to catch a band of rustlers. She teams up with my outlaw, the man she sent to prison for rustling. It has a lot of the classic hooks: western setting, outlaw/bad boy, lack of trust/hero in question,
opposites attract.
Delores Fossen: I think most traditional hooks and storylines work well with Intrigue, but one of my favorites is the "cowboy cop." There's just something special about a Stetson wearing lawman. In my upcoming February Intrigue, Trace Evidence in Tarrant County, the hero, Sgt. Sloan McKinney is a Texas Ranger, the ultimate cowboy cop.
Mallory Kane: I love the traditional hooks for romance--protector hero, marriage of convenience (or forced proximity,) woman in jeopardy, secret baby, amnesia--I could go on
Susan Kearney: In my upcoming Feb release for Tor, Island Heat, I combined a suspense story with paranormal elements. Just like the many Intrigues I wrote for Harlequin, my hero is hot and my heroine is sympathetic. The hook, that the heroine is the only one who can stop the hero's missions--is one that works well in suspense. She must stay close to the hero to find out what he's doing--and how she can stop a man who dominates with otherworldly powers. Set on Earth, Island Heat is first and foremost a powerful love story.
Sylvie Kurtz: Traditional hooks of women-in-jeopardy, protector-hero, amnesia and forced proximity seem to work well for Intrigues to bring out both the romance and the suspense that are key elements. You'll find the woman-in-jeopardy, protector-hero and forgotten memories hooks at the heart of Pull of the Moon (Dec. 2006)--those hooks bring out the gothic feel of the story. For Spirit of a Hunter (The Seekers, Book 5, July 2007), I used woman-in-jeopardy, protector-hero and forced proximity to take my characters on a wild adventure through the White Mountains of New Hampshire.
Julie Miller: I think just about any traditional romantic hook can work in an Intrigue, if you remember to give it a unique, suspenseful twist. Some traditional hooks I've used include amnesia (Unsanctioned Memories--imagine forgetting the face of the man who raped you and left you for dead, and knowing that he's coming after you to finish the job! Scary, not knowing the threat even when he's looking you in the eye!) and, of course, heroes in uniform. Cops and their various, related professions are what my Taylor Clan and Precinct books are all about. Books about brothers have worked especially well for me, too. Again, check out the Taylor Clan--it's cool to have a hero who can protect you and solve the case--it's even cooler when he has a whole family of heroes who can back him up. In my January 2007 Intrigue, Beast in the Tower, I use the traditional Beauty & the Beast storyline--reclusive, cursed hero and the spunky, good-hearted woman whose love and belief in him can restore his own heart and faith in himself. The unique twist in Beast is that the hero is a mad-scientist billionaire instead of a prince, and instead of having a sorceress and magic to overcome--he has outside business adversaries trying to steal his formulas and take over his company. So yeah, I imagine you could take any traditional storyline or hook and make it work for Intrigue--as long as you give it a unique twist and make the tone of the story right for the line.
Dani Sinclair: Any and all traditional hooks work well in Intrigue and I use many of them. The trick is to take something familiar and give it a twist. Most readers seem to enjoy finding stories that hold a special appeal for them whether it's an amnesia story or a marriage of convenience or a hidden identity or some other familiar hook. When my editor suggested a series of books with fairy tale story lines I gave her Secret Cinderella and Beautiful Beast. My February Intrigue is yet another one. In Sleeping Beauty Suspect the hero rescues an unconscious heroine after battling his way to her side. He places a gentle kiss on her forehead as he's leaving and she opens her eyes. But instead of the end, this is only the beginning. Happy New Year everyone!
Rebecca York: Classic hooks work well in Intrigues. I love using them because these stories are tailor-made for larger than life characters. In my upcoming Intrigue, Royal Lockdown (June 07), I've got two of these characters--a self-made man, Shane Peters, who's become one of the country's leading security experts, and Princess Ariana LeBron who end up fighting for their lives against a gang of terrorists who will stop at nothing to kill them. Their terrifying trip through a Boston blackout almost ends in disaster. But Shane and Ariana learn to work together to save their lives. Along the way, they forge an unlikely bond. But can love overcome the differences between these two people who never would have met under ordinary circumstances?
Writing Advice for "intrigue" genre
http://www.intrigueauthors.com/newsletters/Newsletter0907.html#question
Question of the Month: If you could give one piece of writing advice to an aspiring Intrigue author, what would it be? And how did you apply that nugget of wisdom to your current/upcoming Intrigue?
B.J. Daniels: Okay, advice. Everyone has heard this one and is going to moan, but the reason we keep hearing it, is because it's the best advice anyone can give: Write the book of your heart. The book only you can write. YOUR book. That doesn't mean you kick out all the rules or guidelines. It means you find your voice, your style, your story. You make it unique. That is definitely what I strive for every time I write. My October book Shadow Lake (mystery/suspense) isn't an Intrigue. It's a longer book with lots of twists and turns, lots of mystery. An isolated, high mountain lake town in the spring before tourist season starts. Something in the lake. A heroine in trouble, not knowing who to trust. I wrote the kind of book I like to read. And that is the best advice I can give. Write what you love because you can bet there will be someone else out there who will love it as well.
Rita Herron: In my upcoming Intrigue, Up In Flames, I turn up the heat by adding a slight paranormal element while continuing my Nighthawk Island series and the mysteries evolving around the mysterious research park.. While the detective in the book investigates several suspicious arson cases, he's drawn to a woman who claims a firestarter is responsible.
Mallory Kane: I have one piece of advice I always give to any writer, and I think it definitely applies to Intrigue. Never give up. Never, ever ever! I learned that from my father, who was a basketball player and coach. He's 87 now, and I see almost every day how much he has influenced others' lives with his wisdom and his caring. He says that the most import attribute an athlete must have is Desire. Everything else can be there--talent, support, intelligence, ability, but without the Desire, all the rest doesn't amount to a hill of beans. I never gave up. I knew I could write. I didn't know if I could keep going. But I did, and just like my daddy told me, it paid off. So all you writers out there who haven't sold yet--decide if you can do it. Decide if "never give up" will work for you. And good luck!
Susan Kearney: Read the guideline posted for the Harlequin Intrigue line. You can find them online or in RWR, the monthly magazine you get after becoming a member of Romance Writers of America. Although I no longer write for Intrigue, I still use many of those same guidelines in my romantic suspense. For example Kiss Me Deadly, my single title release from Tor, has two conventional Intrigue hooks, Secret Baby and Protector. So even if you never sell to Harlequin Intrigue, learning those hooks can help you sell romantic suspense elsewhere. Good luck.
Sylvie Kurtz: Persistence. Keep trying, keep writing, even when it seems the tide is against you. Just like good Intrigue heroes and heroines do. They don't give up with the first obstacle. They keep going even when things seem impossible and eventually emerge winners. Moving through shoulder pain to get Honor of a Hunter, The Seekers Book 6 (Nov 07) written was an exercise in mind over body. Physical therapy helped, just like having a writing support person is helpful to get through the tough times. Best of luck!
Dana Marton: Start with immediate suspense. You can explain things later. Instead of setup and introductions, send some bullets flying and have the hero and heroine running for their lives. Make the reader hold her breath. Intimate Details, (Sep. 07), starts with the heroine hiding above the ceiling tiles of a beach bungalow, spying on the enemy. She is in a tight place and in complete darkness. Then she realizes that she's not alone.
Julie Miller: Twisty mysteries. Larger than life heroes. Delectable villains. Danger. Action. I've picked up lots of wonderful advice from other Intrigue authors and editors over the years as to what makes a great Intrigue. But I suppose the one thing I think sets an Intrigue off from other romantic suspense lines is the pacing. The best Intrigues, iIMHO, move along like a roller coaster ride with lots of twists and turns. Sure, there are a few spots in the story where the reader can catch his/her breath and almost relax, but then the action and intensity of emotion/danger/action ratchets up again. Hold on tight! My September Intrigue, Nine-Month Protector, really moves along like a roller coaster ride. Sarah Cartwright witnesses a mob hit, and as the daughter of one cop and sister to another, she's willing to testify--a brave deed which puts her right in the sights of the hit man and the mob. Her brother's partner, Cooper Bellamy, steps up to protect her--and her unborn baby which he wishes was his. This one is action-packed as Coop and Sarah go on the run--you almost have to set down the book to catch your breath. That's an Intrigue.
Ann Voss Peterson: My advice would be to always remember Harlequin Intrigue's slogan, "Breathtaking Romantic Suspense." There is nothing leisurely about an Intrigue story. Think intense. Think urgent. Put your characters in a situation where they don't have time to sleep, eat, ponder. Give them an urgent, life-or-death goal. Make the danger they face grow worse with each scene. And whenever they find a quiet moment when they are safe from external danger, force them to face the emotional danger of falling in love. My upcoming Intrigue, Wyoming Manhunt (March, 2008), is the lead book in a Thriller promotion for Intrigue. It is the story of a woman who goes on her company hunting trip hoping to land a promotion...until the boss starts hunting her. The book starts with a bullet screaming past her ear and gets more intense from there. Believe me, the hero and heroine in Wyoming Manhunt don't get a chance to relax, and the challenges they face are definitely breathtaking.
Patricia Rosemoor: Build a believable world. Do your research. Extrapolate from fact. The reader should be invested in your story, not popped out of it by something that seems unbelievable. My upcoming December Intrigue, Wolf Moon, part of The McKenna Legacy series, is a paranormal involving both wolves and werewolves, so it was extremely important that I knew a lot about wolves. My heroine, Aileen McKenna comes to a small Wisconsin town to work on her thesis about wolves and learns that three men have been killed in the last months and many are saying they've been wolf kills, which she knows isn't right. In addition to reading books on the subject and much nitty-gritty information found over the internet, I participated in a weekend wolf ecology workshop in the area of Wisconsin where I set my book. There I gleaned information from wolf biologists that I didn't get from my reading. I feel that their sharing personal experiences gave my story an authenticity I couldn't have otherwise generated.
Dani Sinclair: Understand your market. This is crucial when you’re writing anything. In most category romances, including Intrigue, a solid marketing hook with a fresh twist will sell. Don’t understand hooks? Read the back cover copy of all the Intrigues on the shelf. You’ll quickly see that certain themes are repeated over and over. These are hooks that our readers have come to expect. Amnesia stories, hidden identities, runaway brides, sheriffs or cowboys are all selling tools that draw particular readers to our books. The pair of stories I am working on right now combine the ever popular bride and groom with a bodyguard story that is different than you might expect-- Bodyguard to the Bride and The Missing Millionaire. coming soon.
Rebecca York: My best advice to an aspiring Intrigue writer would be to read tons of Intrigues to see what the editors are looking for. Then write a book that's better than the current offerings! When I started at Intrigue in the early 90's, I was already established as a writer of romantic suspense, so I didn't follow the above advice. My agent "sold" Rebecca York to Intrigue, and I turned in my first book. That's when I got the first of many long revision letters from the then editor-in-chief, Debra Matteucci. For the first few years I was at Intrigue, I regularly got five or seven or eleven page detailed letters from her on how to improve my stories!!! These were never oriented toward the suspense plots of the book. They were always about the romantic relationship. Doing the revisions in a very short time frame was never fun, but it taught me the fine points of writing romantic suspense. You can either call that "learning the hard way." Or "earn while you learn."
Question of the Month: If you could give one piece of writing advice to an aspiring Intrigue author, what would it be? And how did you apply that nugget of wisdom to your current/upcoming Intrigue?
B.J. Daniels: Okay, advice. Everyone has heard this one and is going to moan, but the reason we keep hearing it, is because it's the best advice anyone can give: Write the book of your heart. The book only you can write. YOUR book. That doesn't mean you kick out all the rules or guidelines. It means you find your voice, your style, your story. You make it unique. That is definitely what I strive for every time I write. My October book Shadow Lake (mystery/suspense) isn't an Intrigue. It's a longer book with lots of twists and turns, lots of mystery. An isolated, high mountain lake town in the spring before tourist season starts. Something in the lake. A heroine in trouble, not knowing who to trust. I wrote the kind of book I like to read. And that is the best advice I can give. Write what you love because you can bet there will be someone else out there who will love it as well.
Rita Herron: In my upcoming Intrigue, Up In Flames, I turn up the heat by adding a slight paranormal element while continuing my Nighthawk Island series and the mysteries evolving around the mysterious research park.. While the detective in the book investigates several suspicious arson cases, he's drawn to a woman who claims a firestarter is responsible.
Mallory Kane: I have one piece of advice I always give to any writer, and I think it definitely applies to Intrigue. Never give up. Never, ever ever! I learned that from my father, who was a basketball player and coach. He's 87 now, and I see almost every day how much he has influenced others' lives with his wisdom and his caring. He says that the most import attribute an athlete must have is Desire. Everything else can be there--talent, support, intelligence, ability, but without the Desire, all the rest doesn't amount to a hill of beans. I never gave up. I knew I could write. I didn't know if I could keep going. But I did, and just like my daddy told me, it paid off. So all you writers out there who haven't sold yet--decide if you can do it. Decide if "never give up" will work for you. And good luck!
Susan Kearney: Read the guideline posted for the Harlequin Intrigue line. You can find them online or in RWR, the monthly magazine you get after becoming a member of Romance Writers of America. Although I no longer write for Intrigue, I still use many of those same guidelines in my romantic suspense. For example Kiss Me Deadly, my single title release from Tor, has two conventional Intrigue hooks, Secret Baby and Protector. So even if you never sell to Harlequin Intrigue, learning those hooks can help you sell romantic suspense elsewhere. Good luck.
Sylvie Kurtz: Persistence. Keep trying, keep writing, even when it seems the tide is against you. Just like good Intrigue heroes and heroines do. They don't give up with the first obstacle. They keep going even when things seem impossible and eventually emerge winners. Moving through shoulder pain to get Honor of a Hunter, The Seekers Book 6 (Nov 07) written was an exercise in mind over body. Physical therapy helped, just like having a writing support person is helpful to get through the tough times. Best of luck!
Dana Marton: Start with immediate suspense. You can explain things later. Instead of setup and introductions, send some bullets flying and have the hero and heroine running for their lives. Make the reader hold her breath. Intimate Details, (Sep. 07), starts with the heroine hiding above the ceiling tiles of a beach bungalow, spying on the enemy. She is in a tight place and in complete darkness. Then she realizes that she's not alone.
Julie Miller: Twisty mysteries. Larger than life heroes. Delectable villains. Danger. Action. I've picked up lots of wonderful advice from other Intrigue authors and editors over the years as to what makes a great Intrigue. But I suppose the one thing I think sets an Intrigue off from other romantic suspense lines is the pacing. The best Intrigues, iIMHO, move along like a roller coaster ride with lots of twists and turns. Sure, there are a few spots in the story where the reader can catch his/her breath and almost relax, but then the action and intensity of emotion/danger/action ratchets up again. Hold on tight! My September Intrigue, Nine-Month Protector, really moves along like a roller coaster ride. Sarah Cartwright witnesses a mob hit, and as the daughter of one cop and sister to another, she's willing to testify--a brave deed which puts her right in the sights of the hit man and the mob. Her brother's partner, Cooper Bellamy, steps up to protect her--and her unborn baby which he wishes was his. This one is action-packed as Coop and Sarah go on the run--you almost have to set down the book to catch your breath. That's an Intrigue.
Ann Voss Peterson: My advice would be to always remember Harlequin Intrigue's slogan, "Breathtaking Romantic Suspense." There is nothing leisurely about an Intrigue story. Think intense. Think urgent. Put your characters in a situation where they don't have time to sleep, eat, ponder. Give them an urgent, life-or-death goal. Make the danger they face grow worse with each scene. And whenever they find a quiet moment when they are safe from external danger, force them to face the emotional danger of falling in love. My upcoming Intrigue, Wyoming Manhunt (March, 2008), is the lead book in a Thriller promotion for Intrigue. It is the story of a woman who goes on her company hunting trip hoping to land a promotion...until the boss starts hunting her. The book starts with a bullet screaming past her ear and gets more intense from there. Believe me, the hero and heroine in Wyoming Manhunt don't get a chance to relax, and the challenges they face are definitely breathtaking.
Patricia Rosemoor: Build a believable world. Do your research. Extrapolate from fact. The reader should be invested in your story, not popped out of it by something that seems unbelievable. My upcoming December Intrigue, Wolf Moon, part of The McKenna Legacy series, is a paranormal involving both wolves and werewolves, so it was extremely important that I knew a lot about wolves. My heroine, Aileen McKenna comes to a small Wisconsin town to work on her thesis about wolves and learns that three men have been killed in the last months and many are saying they've been wolf kills, which she knows isn't right. In addition to reading books on the subject and much nitty-gritty information found over the internet, I participated in a weekend wolf ecology workshop in the area of Wisconsin where I set my book. There I gleaned information from wolf biologists that I didn't get from my reading. I feel that their sharing personal experiences gave my story an authenticity I couldn't have otherwise generated.
Dani Sinclair: Understand your market. This is crucial when you’re writing anything. In most category romances, including Intrigue, a solid marketing hook with a fresh twist will sell. Don’t understand hooks? Read the back cover copy of all the Intrigues on the shelf. You’ll quickly see that certain themes are repeated over and over. These are hooks that our readers have come to expect. Amnesia stories, hidden identities, runaway brides, sheriffs or cowboys are all selling tools that draw particular readers to our books. The pair of stories I am working on right now combine the ever popular bride and groom with a bodyguard story that is different than you might expect-- Bodyguard to the Bride and The Missing Millionaire. coming soon.
Rebecca York: My best advice to an aspiring Intrigue writer would be to read tons of Intrigues to see what the editors are looking for. Then write a book that's better than the current offerings! When I started at Intrigue in the early 90's, I was already established as a writer of romantic suspense, so I didn't follow the above advice. My agent "sold" Rebecca York to Intrigue, and I turned in my first book. That's when I got the first of many long revision letters from the then editor-in-chief, Debra Matteucci. For the first few years I was at Intrigue, I regularly got five or seven or eleven page detailed letters from her on how to improve my stories!!! These were never oriented toward the suspense plots of the book. They were always about the romantic relationship. Doing the revisions in a very short time frame was never fun, but it taught me the fine points of writing romantic suspense. You can either call that "learning the hard way." Or "earn while you learn."
Tuesday, May 13, 2008
Beatitudes of Satan
If The Devil Were To Write His Beatitudes, They Would Probably Go Something Like This:
1. Blessed are those who are too tired or busy to spend an hour once a week with fellow Christians -- they are my best workers.
2. Blessed are those Christians who wait to be asked and expect to be thanked -- I can use them.
3. Blessed are the touchy who stop going to church -- they are my missionaries.
4. Blessed are the trouble makers -- they shall be called my children.
5. Blessed are the complainers -- I'm all ears to them.
6. Blessed are those who are bored with the minister's mannerisms and mistakes, for they get nothing out of his sermons.
7. Blessed is the church member who expects to be invited to his own church - for he is a part of the problem instead of the solution.
8. Blessed are those who gossip -- for they shall cause strife and divisions that please me.
9. Blessed are those who are easily offended -- for they will soon get angry and quit.
10. Blessed are those who do not give their offering to carry on God's work -- for they are my helpers.
11. Blessed is he who professes to love God but hates his brother and sister -- for he shall be with me forever!
12. Blessed are you who, when you read this think it is about other people and not yourself -- I've got you, too!
1. Blessed are those who are too tired or busy to spend an hour once a week with fellow Christians -- they are my best workers.
2. Blessed are those Christians who wait to be asked and expect to be thanked -- I can use them.
3. Blessed are the touchy who stop going to church -- they are my missionaries.
4. Blessed are the trouble makers -- they shall be called my children.
5. Blessed are the complainers -- I'm all ears to them.
6. Blessed are those who are bored with the minister's mannerisms and mistakes, for they get nothing out of his sermons.
7. Blessed is the church member who expects to be invited to his own church - for he is a part of the problem instead of the solution.
8. Blessed are those who gossip -- for they shall cause strife and divisions that please me.
9. Blessed are those who are easily offended -- for they will soon get angry and quit.
10. Blessed are those who do not give their offering to carry on God's work -- for they are my helpers.
11. Blessed is he who professes to love God but hates his brother and sister -- for he shall be with me forever!
12. Blessed are you who, when you read this think it is about other people and not yourself -- I've got you, too!
Story Idea
Along with producer/screenwriter John Croydon (using the pseudonym John C. Cooper), Jan Read expanded her story outline for Stranglehold into a screenplay which became Grip Of The Strangler in England and would be known Stateside as The Haunted Strangler (1958). Also behind the scenes was executive producer Richard Gordon, whom Karloff had first met about ten years earlier. At Karloff’s request, Mr. Gordon helped set up the deal, and the newly-formed Producers Associates Ltd. would produce the black-and-white film at Britain’s oldest movie studio, Walton. The story opens at Newgate Prison in 1860, where one-armed convicted murderer Edward Styles, labeled the Haymarket Strangler, is hanged to the delight of a cheering crowd who found entertainment value in public executions, just as people today will tune in to be transfixed by the morbid "realities" of television. Shortly after, as the body is stuffed into a casket and treated with quick lime, a shadowy figure slips an unseen object into the box just before it is sealed. Twenty years later, novelist and social reformer James Rankin (Karloff) seeks to prove that if Styles had had proper legal representation, the man would have been acquitted. Rankin suspects a Doctor Richard Tennant who disappeared, along with a nurse, shortly after the crimes were committed. It was Tennant who performed the victims’ autopsies. Tennant patronized The Judas Hole, the dance hall where one of the victims performed. It was Tennant who then vanished from a hospital following a breakdown at Styles’ funeral. Also missing was a surgical knife from Tennant’s medical bag. Soon Rankin deduces that the scalpel must be in Styles’ coffin. An interview at The Judas Hole with singer Cora (Jean Kent) who had identified Styles as the murderer years ago proves unsatisfactory. Rankin’s own wife, Barbara (Elizabeth Allan), pleads with him to leave the case alone, but his obsession only increases. A visit to the uncooperative Newgate Prison Governor (Leslie Perrins) is further aggravated by the sight of a prisoner being whipped, which causes Rankin to pass out. Even the discovery of his stepdaughter Lily (Diane Aubrey) being kissed by his young assistant Ken (Tim Turner) sets Rankin off. That night a prison turnkey (Max Brimmell) directs Rankin, for a fee, to the grave of Edward Styles. Rankin, alone now, digs for his proof, and, sure enough, the knife is there! But upon clutching it, a strange thing happens. Rankin’s left arm and hand twist, the right side of his face contorts, his breathing becomes heavy and his behavior is clearly changed. Has Rankin become possessed? He returns to The Judas Hole and partially strangles young singer Pearl (Vera Day) and, with the crisscross slashing style of the Haymarket Strangler, finishes her off with the blade. The unrecognized Rankin escapes and later reverts to normal with no memory of the crime. When he confronts Barbara with the belief that he himself is Dr. Tennant, she confirms his suspicion and reveals that it was she who was the nurse that helped him escape all those years ago. As a young widow with a child, she saw in Tennant a troubled man who needed her help and who could help her build a new life. She knew nothing of his murderous lapses, but now she learns as her husband transforms before her eyes, chokes her and follows through with the knife, which he then hides on a nearby bookshelf, and departs. Returning as his normal self to his home and the sight of investigating police headed by Superintendent Burk (Anthony Dawson), Rankin confesses but is not believed. The turnkey denies having helped Rankin into the cemetery. Finally, the grave’s headstone has been switched, so Rankin has no proof at all. Now raving, Rankin is committed to an asylum where, in the privacy of his cell, the sight of a gas lamp’s flickering flame resembling a knife triggers another transformation. Rankin tears out of his straight jacket and escapes from the cell. He slashes a guard’s face with glass and kills a prison maid for an encore. But home is where his favored weapon is, so Rankin/Tennant returns for it. There he lunges toward Lily, but the faces of his past victims begin to haunt him, he regains his sanity and lets her go. He knows he must return the knife to the grave. He does, with Burk and others in pursuit. As Rankin pleads with Burk to see that the knife is buried, the corrupt turnkey orders the guards to fire. With his dying breath, Rankin urges Burk to bury the blade, stating "It belongs here, with me." Brutal prison conditions and the cruel treatment of the mentally ill, the latter prevalent in Bedlam, are on hand in The Haunted Strangler with Boris on the receiving end this time. And he’s quite up to the task, running the gamut from gentleman and energetic investigator to lunatic and murderer, all with conviction. The transformation is in the tradition of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, only psychological instead of chemical. To achieve the effect, Karloff removes some false teeth. One hand curls, stiffens and raises toward his chest while an eye squeezes shut and some remaining teeth protrude from one side and clamp down on his lower lip. It’s a bit of a gamble, but it pays off much the same way as the initial stages of John Barrymore’s Mr. Hyde conversion back in 1920. While The Haunted Strangler is not without flaws (for example, the box containing evidence in the Jack the Ripper case, when Jack didn’t make the scene for another eight years), its still a ripping good yarn on its own. Part detective mystery, part horror, part psychological drama, part social commentary, and with even a dash of musical thrown in, it came at a time during the sci-fi boom of the Fifties when gothic terror was just making a comeback, courtesy of Hammer’s Curse Of Frankenstein (1957).
The Why's of Men
1. WHY DO MEN BECOME SMARTER DURING SEX?
(because they are plugged into a genius)
2. WHY DON'T MEN BLINK DURING SEX?
(they don't have enough time)
3. WHY DOES IT TAKE 1 MILLION SPERM TO FERTILIZE ONE EGG?
(they don't stop to ask directions)
4. WHY DO MEN SNORE WHEN THEY LIE ON THEIR BACKS?
(because their balls fall over their butt-hole and they vapor lock)
5. WHY WERE MEN GIVEN LARGER BRAINS THAN DOGS?
(so they won't hump women's legs at cocktails parties)
6. WHY DID GOD MAKE MEN BEFORE WOMEN?
(you need a rough draft before you make a final copy)
7. HOW MANY MEN DOES IT TAKE TO PUT A TOILET SEAT DOWN?
(don't know....it never happened)
8. WHY DID GOD PUT MEN ON EARTH?
(because a vibrator can't mow the lawn)
(because they are plugged into a genius)
2. WHY DON'T MEN BLINK DURING SEX?
(they don't have enough time)
3. WHY DOES IT TAKE 1 MILLION SPERM TO FERTILIZE ONE EGG?
(they don't stop to ask directions)
4. WHY DO MEN SNORE WHEN THEY LIE ON THEIR BACKS?
(because their balls fall over their butt-hole and they vapor lock)
5. WHY WERE MEN GIVEN LARGER BRAINS THAN DOGS?
(so they won't hump women's legs at cocktails parties)
6. WHY DID GOD MAKE MEN BEFORE WOMEN?
(you need a rough draft before you make a final copy)
7. HOW MANY MEN DOES IT TAKE TO PUT A TOILET SEAT DOWN?
(don't know....it never happened)
8. WHY DID GOD PUT MEN ON EARTH?
(because a vibrator can't mow the lawn)
Timeline Notes
In 1860, the first Pony Express rider reached Sacramento, California.
in 1885, Wilson Bentley took the first photograph of a snowflake.
In 1885, Good Housekeeping magazine went on sale for the first time.
n 1882, the "Elektromote"-–a forerunner of the trolleybus-–trialed by Ernst Werner von Siemens in Berlin.
And in 1901, New York became the first U.S. state to require automobile license plates.
May 7, 1896 -- A serial killer is hanged -- Dr. H. H. Holmes, one of America's first well-known serial killers, is hanged to death in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Although his criminal exploits were just as extensive and occurred during the same time period as Jack the Ripper, the Arch Fiend--as Holmes was known--has not endured in the public's memory the way the Ripper has. Born with the unfortunate moniker Herman Mudgett in New Hampshire, Holmes began torturing animals as a child. Still, he was a smart boy who later graduated from the University of Michigan with a medical degree. Holmes financed his education with a series of insurance scams whereby he requested coverage for nonexistent people and then presented corpses as the insured. In 1886, Holmes moved to Chicago to work as a pharmacist. A few months later, he bought the pharmacy from the owner's widow after his death. She then mysteriously disappeared. With a new series of cons, Holmes raised enough money to build a giant, elaborate home across from the store. The home, which Holmes called "The Castle," had secret passageways, fake walls, and trapdoors. Some of the rooms were soundproof and connected by pipes to a gas tank in the basement. His bedroom had controls that could fill these rooms with gas. Holmes' basement also contained a lab with equipment used for his dissections. Young women in the area, along with tourists who had come to see the 1893 World's Fair in Chicago, and had rented out rooms in Holmes' castle, suddenly began disappearing. Medical schools purchased many human skeletons from Dr. Holmes during this period but never asked how he obtained the anatomy specimens. Holmes was finally caught after attempting to use another corpse in an insurance scam. He confessed, saying, "I was born with the devil in me. I could not help the fact that I was a murderer, no more than a poet can help the inspiration to sing." Reportedly, authorities discovered the remains of over 200 victims on his property. Devil in the White City, a book about Holmes' murder spree and the World Fair by Erik Larson, was published in 2003.
Born into the Christian home of Irish Presbyterians of Dublin, Ireland in 1841, Robert Anderson did not come into "full assurance of faith" (Hebrews 10:22) until he was nineteen years old, during the Irish Revival (1859-1860). One Sunday, after listening to Dr. John Hall preach, he remained behind to argue with the minister. Dr. Hall solemnly appealed to Robert, "I tell you as a minister of Christ, and in His name that there is life for you here and now, if you will accept Him. Will you accept Christ or will you reject Him?" To this, Robert Anderson paused, but finally exclaimed, "In God's name I will accept Christ!" "And," he said, "I turned turned homeward with the peace of God filling my heart." "And the peace of God, which passeth all understanding, shall keep your hearts and minds through Christ Jesus" (Philippians 4:7). Though he was enrolled at Trinity College (Dublin)-- from which he graduated in 1862-- he became active as a lay-preacher, bringing many to Christ. "He that goeth forth and weepeth, bearing Precious Seed, shall doubtless come again with rejoicing, bringing his sheaves with him" (Psalm 126:6). Becoming a member of the Irish Bar in 1863, Anderson was introduced to police work, when he prepared legal briefs and interrogated prisoners that had attempted to overthrow British rule in Ireland. "The steps of a good man are ordered by the LORD: and He delighteth in his way" (Psalm 37:23). Moving to London in 1877, Robert Anderson joined the staff of the Home Office, developing his investigative skills through the detective department. Promoted to Assistant Commissioner of Metropolitan Police and Chief of the Criminal Investigation Department of Scotland Yard in 1888, the records indicate that crime decreased in London during that period-- when Jack the Ripper infamously terrorized London and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes pursued his nemesis, Moriarty. "6 For promotion cometh neither from the east, nor from the west, nor from the south. 7 But God is the Judge: He putteth down one, and setteth up another" (Psalm 75:6-7). Serving with Scotland Yard until his retirement in 1896, he was knighted by Queen Victoria. His many friends included Handley G. Moule, Henry Drummond, James M. Gray, and C. I. Scofield. "I am a companion of all them that fear Thee, and of them that keep Thy precepts" (Psalm 119:63). It was Horatius Bonar who first taught Anderson the precious truths concerning the Second Coming of the LORD Jesus Christ. "So Christ was once offered to bear the sins of many; and unto them that look for Him shall He appear the second time without sin unto Salvation" (Hebrews 9:28). As a Christian writer, he authored seventeen major books, among them his "Human Destiny" was accounted by C. H. Spurgeon as the "most valuable contribution on the subject" that he had ever seen. Sir Robert Anderson remained active and useful to his LORD until his death in 1918. "I have fought a good fight, I have finished my course, I have kept the faith" (2Timothy 4:7).
ANDERSON, Robert
Born : 1841, Dublin, Ireland. Son of Matthew Anderson a Crown Solicitor.
1862 : Recieves a BA from Trinity College Dublin.
1863 : Called to the bar.
1873 : Married Agnes Alexandrina Moore.
1876 : Brought over to London as part of an intelligence branch to combat Fenianism. The branch was soon closed but Anderson remained in London as a Home Office "Advisor in matters relating to political crime". He was also the controller for the spy Thomas Miller Beach who had penetrated the Fenian movement.
1886 : Relieved of all duties except controlling Beach after getting into trouble with Home Secretary Hugh Childers.
1887-1888 : Secretary of the Prison Commissioners.
1888 : Aug - Replaces James Monro as Assistant Commissioner CID.
1901 : Retires and is knighted.
1910 : Publishes his memoirs "The Lighter Side of My Official Life".
1918 : Nov 15 - Died.
Anderson stated several times that the identity of the Whitechapel murderer was known.
"...he had been safely caged in an Asylum." (Criminals and Crime, 1907)
"In saying that he was a Polish Jew I am merely stating a definitely ascertained fact." (The Lighter Side of My Official Life, 1910)
"...there was no doubt whatever as to the identity of the criminal..." (Police Encyclopedia, 1920)
Source:
Begg, Fido, and Skinner. The Jack the Ripper A-Z.
On May 24, 1883, New Yorkers celebrated the completion of the Brooklyn Bridge, the first steel-wire suspension bridge. This engineering feat, however, was not accomplished without sacrifice. To lay the bridge’s giant foundations in the water, huge watertight chambers called “caissons” had to be used. Men would work in them for 8 hours while under tremendous air pressure. Returning to normal atmospheric pressure resulted in terrible symptoms later known as caisson disease. It was discovered that a rapid decrease in air pressure releases tiny nitrogen bubbles in the blood. This cuts off the oxygen supply, resulting in nausea, achy joints, paralysis, and even death. Today, scientists know that the use of a decompression chamber allows a gradual reduction of pressure, which prevents the nitrogen bubbles from forming.
In 1879, at New York City's Madison Square Garden, the first artificial ice rink in North America opened.
In 1883, Thomas Edison’s light bulb was demonstrated in Louisville, KY
The Louvre opened as a public museum in Paris on November 8, 1793, after more than two centuries as a royal palace.
On November 11, 1852, the Saturday Evening Gazette published “The Rival Painters: A Story of Rome,” by Louisa May Alcott, author of “Little Women” (1868). Alcott spent most of her life caring for her family financially, emotionally and physically. Her father died in March 1888 and she followed him just two days later.
On November 7, 1916, Montana suffragist Jeannette Rankin was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, becoming the first woman to win a seat in the federal Congress. A dedicated pacifist, Rankin’s first vote as a U.S. congresswoman was against U.S. entry into World War I.
In 1861, The Pony Express officially ceased operations
October 27, 1858 -- Macy's is a hit -- The eighth time was the charm for Roland Macy. After a string of seven business failures, the resilient entrepreneur finally hit the jackpot in 1858 when he founded his own department store, named (you guessed it!) Macy's. The store, which opened in New York City, was packed with a variety of useful products and became an immediate success. Today, Macy's is, by volume of sales, the biggest department store in the world.
October 29, 1901 -- A mass-murdering nurse is arrested -- Nurse Jane Toppan is arrested in Amherst, Massachusetts, for single-handedly killing the Davis family of Boston with an overdose of morphine during a period of six weeks in July and August.
Toppan's childhood, as with virtually all serial killers, was very troubled. Her mother died when she was very young, and her father had severe mental problems. A tailor by trade, he was sent to an asylum after he stitched together his own eyelids. Although her sister was soon sent off to a mental hospital as well, Jane bounced around between several orphanages for years until she was finally adopted. To all around her, Toppan seemed to be doing fine until a broken engagement led her to attempt suicide.
After recovering from her suicide attempt, she went on to study nursing and developed a fascination with the morgue, corpses, and autopsies. For years, she worked as a private nurse, taking care of elderly patients throughout the New England area, but no one took note of her patients' survival rate until she came to care for Mattie Davis.
Davis, who was an old friend of Toppan's, died on July 4, 1901, in Toppan's care. Volunteering to assist the Davis family as they worked through their grief, Toppan soon began to care for Mattie's sister, Annie, and her father, Alden. On July 29, Annie died, and, only days later, Alden died as well.
Because she had also allowed Toppan to treat her, the only surviving family member, Mary, was not suspicious of her relatives' deaths. However, a few weeks later, she too was dead. Mary's husband, who knew that the deaths had gone beyond coincidence, demanded autopsies of all of the family members. After the coroner determined that they had each been killed by morphine injections, Toppan fled Boston. During her time as a fugitive, Toppan killed her sister, Edna Bannister.
By the time she was arrested, authorities produced solid evidence of 11 murders, and she confessed to 20 more. Some believe that she may have been responsible for as many as 100 deaths. At her trial, Toppan told the court, "That is my ambition, to have killed more people-more helpless people-than any man or woman who has ever lived." Unsurprisingly, she was sent to a Massachusetts mental asylum. There, she allegedly implored the workers to get some morphine so that they could have fun by killing the other patients. Toppan died in 1938.
October 27, 1873 -- Joseph Glidden applies for a patent on his barbed wire design -- On this day in 1873, a De Kalb, Illinois, farmer named Joseph Glidden submits an application to the U.S. Patent Office for his clever new design for a fencing wire with sharp barbs, an invention that will forever change the face of the American West.
Glidden's was by no means the first barbed wire; he only came up with his design after seeing an exhibit of Henry Rose's single-stranded barbed wire at the De Kalb county fair. But Glidden's design significantly improved on Rose's by using two strands of wire twisted together to hold the barbed spur wires firmly in place. Glidden's wire also soon proved to be well suited to mass production techniques, and by 1880 more than 80 million pounds of inexpensive Glidden-style barbed wire was sold, making it the most popular wire in the nation. Prairie and plains farmers quickly discovered that Glidden's wire was the cheapest, strongest, and most durable way to fence their property. As one fan wrote, "it takes no room, exhausts no soil, shades no vegetation, is proof against high winds, makes no snowdrifts, and is both durable and cheap."
The effect of this simple invention on the life in the Great Plains was huge. Since the plains were largely treeless, a farmer who wanted to construct a fence had little choice but to buy expensive and bulky wooden rails shipped by train and wagon from distant forests. Without the alternative offered by cheap and portable barbed wire, few farmers would have attempted to homestead on the Great Plains, since they could not have afforded to protect their farms from grazing herds of cattle and sheep. Barbed wire also brought a speedy end to the era of the open-range cattle industry. Within the course of just a few years, many ranchers discovered that thousands of small homesteaders were fencing over the open range where their cattle had once freely roamed, and that the old technique of driving cattle over miles of unfenced land to railheads in Dodge City or Abilene was no longer possible.
October 18: General Interest -- 1867 : U.S. takes possession of Alaska -- On this day in 1867, the U.S. formally takes possession of Alaska after purchasing the territory from Russia for $7.2 million, or less than two cents an acre. The Alaska purchase comprised 586,412 square miles, about twice the size of Texas, and was championed by William Henry Seward, the enthusiasticly expansionist secretary of state under President Andrew Johnson.
Russia wanted to sell its Alaska territory, which was remote, sparsely populated and difficult to defend, to the U.S. rather than risk losing it in battle with a rival such as Great Britain. Negotiations between Seward (1801-1872) and the Russian minister to the U.S., Eduard de Stoeckl, began in March 1867. However, the American public believed the land to be barren and worthless and dubbed the purchase "Seward's Folly" and "Andrew Johnson's Polar Bear Garden," among other derogatory names. Some animosity toward the project may have been a byproduct of President Johnson's own unpopularity. As the 17th U.S. president, Johnson battled with Radical Republicans in Congress over Reconstruction policies following the Civil War. He was impeached in 1868 and later acquitted by a single vote. Nevertheless, Congress eventually ratified the Alaska deal.
Public opinion of the purchase turned more favorable when gold was discovered in a tributary of Alaska's Klondike River in 1896, sparking a gold rush. Alaska became the 49th state on January 3, 1959, and is now recognized for its vast natural resources. Today, 25 percent of America's oil and over 50 percent of its seafood come from Alaska. It is also the largest state in area, about one-fifth the size of the lower 48 states combined, though it remains sparsely populated.
The name Alaska is derived from the Aleut word alyeska, which means "great land." Alaska has two official state holidays to commemorate its origins: Seward's Day, observed the last Monday in March, celebrates the March 30, 1867, signing of the land treaty between the U.S. and Russia, and Alaska Day, observed every October 18, marks the anniversary of the formal land transfer.
October 17, 1864 -- Longstreet returns to command -- Confederate General James Longstreet assumes command of his corps in Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia. Wounded at the Battle of the Wilderness in May, Longstreet missed the campaign for Richmond and spent five months recovering before retuning to his command.
Longstreet was one of the most effective corps commanders in the war. He became a brigadier general before the First Battle of Bull Run in 1861, and he quickly rose through the ranks of the Army of Northern Virginia. He became a divisional commander, and his leadership during the Seven Days' Battles and the Second Battle of Bull Run earned him the respect of the army's commander, General Robert E. Lee, who gave him command of a corps just before the Battle of Antietam in September 1862.
His leadership at Antietam, Fredericksburg, and Gettysburg sealed his reputation as a brilliant corps leader, but Longstreet was less successful when given an independent command. In spring 1863, he led a force in northern North Carolina and southern Virginia, and he made an expedition to relieve Confederate forces in Tennessee in fall 1863. He enjoyed little success in either situation.
The Union Army of the Potomac crossed the Rapidan River in early May 1864 for another attempt at capturing the Confederate capital at Richmond. At the Battle of the Wilderness on May 6, Longstreet was shot by his own troops while scouting the lines during the battle. Ironically, it was just a few miles from the spot where Confederate General Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson had been mortally wounded by his men just one year earlier. Longstreet was hit in the neck and shoulder, and he nearly died. He was incapacitated for the rest of the campaign and did not rejoin his corps until it was mired in the siege of Petersburg, Virginia, in October 1864.
After the war, Longstreet worked at a variety of government posts, including U.S. minister to Turkey. He broke with his fellow Confederates by joining the Republican Party, and he dared to criticize some of Lee's tactical decisions. Though he was reviled by many of his fellow generals for this later behavior, he outlived most of his detractors. He died in Gainesville, Georgia, at the age of 82 in 1904.
October 26: General Interest -- 1881 : Shootout at the OK Corral -- On this day in 1881, the Earp brothers face off against the Clanton-McLaury gang in a legendary shootout at the OK Corral in Tombstone, Arizona.
After silver was discovered nearby in 1877, Tombstone quickly grew into one of the richest mining towns in the Southwest. Wyatt Earp, a former Kansas police officer working as a bank security guard, and his brothers, Morgan and Virgil, the town marshal, represented "law and order" in Tombstone, though they also had reputations as being power-hungry and ruthless. The Clantons and McLaurys were cowboys who lived on a ranch outside of town and sidelined as cattle rustlers, thieves and murderers. In October 1881, the struggle between these two groups for control of Tombstone and Cochise County ended in a blaze of gunfire at the OK Corral.
On the morning of October 25, Ike Clanton and Tom McLaury came into Tombstone for supplies. Over the next 24 hours, the two men had several violent run-ins with the Earps and their friend Doc Holliday. Around 1:30 p.m. on October 26, Ike's brother Billy rode into town to join them, along with Frank McLaury and Billy Claiborne. The first person they met in the local saloon was Holliday, who was delighted to inform them that their brothers had both been pistol-whipped by the Earps. Frank and Billy immediately left the saloon, vowing revenge.
Around 3 p.m., the Earps and Holliday spotted the five members of the Clanton-McLaury gang in a vacant lot behind the OK Corral, at the end of Fremont Street. The famous gunfight that ensued lasted all of 30 seconds, and around 30 shots were fired. Though it's still debated who fired the first shot, most reports say that the shootout began when Virgil Earp pulled out his revolver and shot Billy Clanton point-blank in the chest, while Doc Holliday fired a shotgun blast at Tom McLaury's chest. Though Wyatt Earp wounded Frank McLaury with a shot in the stomach, Frank managed to get off a few shots before collapsing, as did Billy Clanton. When the dust cleared, Billy Clanton and the McLaury brothers were dead, and Virgil and Morgan Earp and Doc Holliday were wounded. Ike Clanton and Claiborne had run for the hills.
Sheriff John Behan of Cochise County, who witnessed the shootout, charged the Earps and Holliday with murder. A month later, however, a Tombstone judge found the men not guilty, ruling that they were "fully justified in committing these homicides." The famous shootout has been immortalized in many movies, including Frontier Marshal (1939), Gunfight at the OK Corral (1957), Tombstone (1993) and Wyatt Earp (1994).
1882, the Nickel Plate Railroad opened for business.
October 15, 1878 A little help from his friends -- Long before the days of Bill Gates, Thomas Edison offered a good lesson in the economics of technical innovation. On October 15, 1878, Edison opened the doors to the Edison Electric Company, but the prolific inventor didn't get the company off the ground by himself. Edison Electric was, in part, funded by wealthy investors like J.P. Morgan, who thought Edison, the inventor of the telegraph, was a wise investment. Though electric light had eluded inventors for over fifty years, Edison had vowed that he would create the first incandescent lamp. He quickly made good on his promise. His company was soon flush with profits, and competitors hoping to cash in on the burgeoning market were springing up everywhere. Under the tutelage of Morgan, Edison adopted the aggressive tactics of vertical integration, buying his rivals and transforming his company into a model modern enterprise. Without anti-trust laws to put the breaks on the feeding frenzy, Edison's shop, re-christened the General Electric Company, dominated the field with just one major competitor, the Westinghouse Company.
Hobble or restrictive skirts first appeared in Western fashion in around 1880. Advantages: Some people enjoy the feeling of legs being "hugged" together by the skirt. Due to their tightness and close proximity to the body, hobble skirts can make the wearer feel very warm, without having to wear bifurcated legwear. Disadvantages: They shorten the wearer's stride. They render the wearer unable to run. It is impossible to do things which require spreading legs or having an object between the legs
in 1885, Wilson Bentley took the first photograph of a snowflake.
In 1885, Good Housekeeping magazine went on sale for the first time.
n 1882, the "Elektromote"-–a forerunner of the trolleybus-–trialed by Ernst Werner von Siemens in Berlin.
And in 1901, New York became the first U.S. state to require automobile license plates.
May 7, 1896 -- A serial killer is hanged -- Dr. H. H. Holmes, one of America's first well-known serial killers, is hanged to death in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Although his criminal exploits were just as extensive and occurred during the same time period as Jack the Ripper, the Arch Fiend--as Holmes was known--has not endured in the public's memory the way the Ripper has. Born with the unfortunate moniker Herman Mudgett in New Hampshire, Holmes began torturing animals as a child. Still, he was a smart boy who later graduated from the University of Michigan with a medical degree. Holmes financed his education with a series of insurance scams whereby he requested coverage for nonexistent people and then presented corpses as the insured. In 1886, Holmes moved to Chicago to work as a pharmacist. A few months later, he bought the pharmacy from the owner's widow after his death. She then mysteriously disappeared. With a new series of cons, Holmes raised enough money to build a giant, elaborate home across from the store. The home, which Holmes called "The Castle," had secret passageways, fake walls, and trapdoors. Some of the rooms were soundproof and connected by pipes to a gas tank in the basement. His bedroom had controls that could fill these rooms with gas. Holmes' basement also contained a lab with equipment used for his dissections. Young women in the area, along with tourists who had come to see the 1893 World's Fair in Chicago, and had rented out rooms in Holmes' castle, suddenly began disappearing. Medical schools purchased many human skeletons from Dr. Holmes during this period but never asked how he obtained the anatomy specimens. Holmes was finally caught after attempting to use another corpse in an insurance scam. He confessed, saying, "I was born with the devil in me. I could not help the fact that I was a murderer, no more than a poet can help the inspiration to sing." Reportedly, authorities discovered the remains of over 200 victims on his property. Devil in the White City, a book about Holmes' murder spree and the World Fair by Erik Larson, was published in 2003.
Born into the Christian home of Irish Presbyterians of Dublin, Ireland in 1841, Robert Anderson did not come into "full assurance of faith" (Hebrews 10:22) until he was nineteen years old, during the Irish Revival (1859-1860). One Sunday, after listening to Dr. John Hall preach, he remained behind to argue with the minister. Dr. Hall solemnly appealed to Robert, "I tell you as a minister of Christ, and in His name that there is life for you here and now, if you will accept Him. Will you accept Christ or will you reject Him?" To this, Robert Anderson paused, but finally exclaimed, "In God's name I will accept Christ!" "And," he said, "I turned turned homeward with the peace of God filling my heart." "And the peace of God, which passeth all understanding, shall keep your hearts and minds through Christ Jesus" (Philippians 4:7). Though he was enrolled at Trinity College (Dublin)-- from which he graduated in 1862-- he became active as a lay-preacher, bringing many to Christ. "He that goeth forth and weepeth, bearing Precious Seed, shall doubtless come again with rejoicing, bringing his sheaves with him" (Psalm 126:6). Becoming a member of the Irish Bar in 1863, Anderson was introduced to police work, when he prepared legal briefs and interrogated prisoners that had attempted to overthrow British rule in Ireland. "The steps of a good man are ordered by the LORD: and He delighteth in his way" (Psalm 37:23). Moving to London in 1877, Robert Anderson joined the staff of the Home Office, developing his investigative skills through the detective department. Promoted to Assistant Commissioner of Metropolitan Police and Chief of the Criminal Investigation Department of Scotland Yard in 1888, the records indicate that crime decreased in London during that period-- when Jack the Ripper infamously terrorized London and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes pursued his nemesis, Moriarty. "6 For promotion cometh neither from the east, nor from the west, nor from the south. 7 But God is the Judge: He putteth down one, and setteth up another" (Psalm 75:6-7). Serving with Scotland Yard until his retirement in 1896, he was knighted by Queen Victoria. His many friends included Handley G. Moule, Henry Drummond, James M. Gray, and C. I. Scofield. "I am a companion of all them that fear Thee, and of them that keep Thy precepts" (Psalm 119:63). It was Horatius Bonar who first taught Anderson the precious truths concerning the Second Coming of the LORD Jesus Christ. "So Christ was once offered to bear the sins of many; and unto them that look for Him shall He appear the second time without sin unto Salvation" (Hebrews 9:28). As a Christian writer, he authored seventeen major books, among them his "Human Destiny" was accounted by C. H. Spurgeon as the "most valuable contribution on the subject" that he had ever seen. Sir Robert Anderson remained active and useful to his LORD until his death in 1918. "I have fought a good fight, I have finished my course, I have kept the faith" (2Timothy 4:7).
ANDERSON, Robert
Born : 1841, Dublin, Ireland. Son of Matthew Anderson a Crown Solicitor.
1862 : Recieves a BA from Trinity College Dublin.
1863 : Called to the bar.
1873 : Married Agnes Alexandrina Moore.
1876 : Brought over to London as part of an intelligence branch to combat Fenianism. The branch was soon closed but Anderson remained in London as a Home Office "Advisor in matters relating to political crime". He was also the controller for the spy Thomas Miller Beach who had penetrated the Fenian movement.
1886 : Relieved of all duties except controlling Beach after getting into trouble with Home Secretary Hugh Childers.
1887-1888 : Secretary of the Prison Commissioners.
1888 : Aug - Replaces James Monro as Assistant Commissioner CID.
1901 : Retires and is knighted.
1910 : Publishes his memoirs "The Lighter Side of My Official Life".
1918 : Nov 15 - Died.
Anderson stated several times that the identity of the Whitechapel murderer was known.
"...he had been safely caged in an Asylum." (Criminals and Crime, 1907)
"In saying that he was a Polish Jew I am merely stating a definitely ascertained fact." (The Lighter Side of My Official Life, 1910)
"...there was no doubt whatever as to the identity of the criminal..." (Police Encyclopedia, 1920)
Source:
Begg, Fido, and Skinner. The Jack the Ripper A-Z.
On May 24, 1883, New Yorkers celebrated the completion of the Brooklyn Bridge, the first steel-wire suspension bridge. This engineering feat, however, was not accomplished without sacrifice. To lay the bridge’s giant foundations in the water, huge watertight chambers called “caissons” had to be used. Men would work in them for 8 hours while under tremendous air pressure. Returning to normal atmospheric pressure resulted in terrible symptoms later known as caisson disease. It was discovered that a rapid decrease in air pressure releases tiny nitrogen bubbles in the blood. This cuts off the oxygen supply, resulting in nausea, achy joints, paralysis, and even death. Today, scientists know that the use of a decompression chamber allows a gradual reduction of pressure, which prevents the nitrogen bubbles from forming.
In 1879, at New York City's Madison Square Garden, the first artificial ice rink in North America opened.
In 1883, Thomas Edison’s light bulb was demonstrated in Louisville, KY
The Louvre opened as a public museum in Paris on November 8, 1793, after more than two centuries as a royal palace.
On November 11, 1852, the Saturday Evening Gazette published “The Rival Painters: A Story of Rome,” by Louisa May Alcott, author of “Little Women” (1868). Alcott spent most of her life caring for her family financially, emotionally and physically. Her father died in March 1888 and she followed him just two days later.
On November 7, 1916, Montana suffragist Jeannette Rankin was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, becoming the first woman to win a seat in the federal Congress. A dedicated pacifist, Rankin’s first vote as a U.S. congresswoman was against U.S. entry into World War I.
In 1861, The Pony Express officially ceased operations
October 27, 1858 -- Macy's is a hit -- The eighth time was the charm for Roland Macy. After a string of seven business failures, the resilient entrepreneur finally hit the jackpot in 1858 when he founded his own department store, named (you guessed it!) Macy's. The store, which opened in New York City, was packed with a variety of useful products and became an immediate success. Today, Macy's is, by volume of sales, the biggest department store in the world.
October 29, 1901 -- A mass-murdering nurse is arrested -- Nurse Jane Toppan is arrested in Amherst, Massachusetts, for single-handedly killing the Davis family of Boston with an overdose of morphine during a period of six weeks in July and August.
Toppan's childhood, as with virtually all serial killers, was very troubled. Her mother died when she was very young, and her father had severe mental problems. A tailor by trade, he was sent to an asylum after he stitched together his own eyelids. Although her sister was soon sent off to a mental hospital as well, Jane bounced around between several orphanages for years until she was finally adopted. To all around her, Toppan seemed to be doing fine until a broken engagement led her to attempt suicide.
After recovering from her suicide attempt, she went on to study nursing and developed a fascination with the morgue, corpses, and autopsies. For years, she worked as a private nurse, taking care of elderly patients throughout the New England area, but no one took note of her patients' survival rate until she came to care for Mattie Davis.
Davis, who was an old friend of Toppan's, died on July 4, 1901, in Toppan's care. Volunteering to assist the Davis family as they worked through their grief, Toppan soon began to care for Mattie's sister, Annie, and her father, Alden. On July 29, Annie died, and, only days later, Alden died as well.
Because she had also allowed Toppan to treat her, the only surviving family member, Mary, was not suspicious of her relatives' deaths. However, a few weeks later, she too was dead. Mary's husband, who knew that the deaths had gone beyond coincidence, demanded autopsies of all of the family members. After the coroner determined that they had each been killed by morphine injections, Toppan fled Boston. During her time as a fugitive, Toppan killed her sister, Edna Bannister.
By the time she was arrested, authorities produced solid evidence of 11 murders, and she confessed to 20 more. Some believe that she may have been responsible for as many as 100 deaths. At her trial, Toppan told the court, "That is my ambition, to have killed more people-more helpless people-than any man or woman who has ever lived." Unsurprisingly, she was sent to a Massachusetts mental asylum. There, she allegedly implored the workers to get some morphine so that they could have fun by killing the other patients. Toppan died in 1938.
October 27, 1873 -- Joseph Glidden applies for a patent on his barbed wire design -- On this day in 1873, a De Kalb, Illinois, farmer named Joseph Glidden submits an application to the U.S. Patent Office for his clever new design for a fencing wire with sharp barbs, an invention that will forever change the face of the American West.
Glidden's was by no means the first barbed wire; he only came up with his design after seeing an exhibit of Henry Rose's single-stranded barbed wire at the De Kalb county fair. But Glidden's design significantly improved on Rose's by using two strands of wire twisted together to hold the barbed spur wires firmly in place. Glidden's wire also soon proved to be well suited to mass production techniques, and by 1880 more than 80 million pounds of inexpensive Glidden-style barbed wire was sold, making it the most popular wire in the nation. Prairie and plains farmers quickly discovered that Glidden's wire was the cheapest, strongest, and most durable way to fence their property. As one fan wrote, "it takes no room, exhausts no soil, shades no vegetation, is proof against high winds, makes no snowdrifts, and is both durable and cheap."
The effect of this simple invention on the life in the Great Plains was huge. Since the plains were largely treeless, a farmer who wanted to construct a fence had little choice but to buy expensive and bulky wooden rails shipped by train and wagon from distant forests. Without the alternative offered by cheap and portable barbed wire, few farmers would have attempted to homestead on the Great Plains, since they could not have afforded to protect their farms from grazing herds of cattle and sheep. Barbed wire also brought a speedy end to the era of the open-range cattle industry. Within the course of just a few years, many ranchers discovered that thousands of small homesteaders were fencing over the open range where their cattle had once freely roamed, and that the old technique of driving cattle over miles of unfenced land to railheads in Dodge City or Abilene was no longer possible.
October 18: General Interest -- 1867 : U.S. takes possession of Alaska -- On this day in 1867, the U.S. formally takes possession of Alaska after purchasing the territory from Russia for $7.2 million, or less than two cents an acre. The Alaska purchase comprised 586,412 square miles, about twice the size of Texas, and was championed by William Henry Seward, the enthusiasticly expansionist secretary of state under President Andrew Johnson.
Russia wanted to sell its Alaska territory, which was remote, sparsely populated and difficult to defend, to the U.S. rather than risk losing it in battle with a rival such as Great Britain. Negotiations between Seward (1801-1872) and the Russian minister to the U.S., Eduard de Stoeckl, began in March 1867. However, the American public believed the land to be barren and worthless and dubbed the purchase "Seward's Folly" and "Andrew Johnson's Polar Bear Garden," among other derogatory names. Some animosity toward the project may have been a byproduct of President Johnson's own unpopularity. As the 17th U.S. president, Johnson battled with Radical Republicans in Congress over Reconstruction policies following the Civil War. He was impeached in 1868 and later acquitted by a single vote. Nevertheless, Congress eventually ratified the Alaska deal.
Public opinion of the purchase turned more favorable when gold was discovered in a tributary of Alaska's Klondike River in 1896, sparking a gold rush. Alaska became the 49th state on January 3, 1959, and is now recognized for its vast natural resources. Today, 25 percent of America's oil and over 50 percent of its seafood come from Alaska. It is also the largest state in area, about one-fifth the size of the lower 48 states combined, though it remains sparsely populated.
The name Alaska is derived from the Aleut word alyeska, which means "great land." Alaska has two official state holidays to commemorate its origins: Seward's Day, observed the last Monday in March, celebrates the March 30, 1867, signing of the land treaty between the U.S. and Russia, and Alaska Day, observed every October 18, marks the anniversary of the formal land transfer.
October 17, 1864 -- Longstreet returns to command -- Confederate General James Longstreet assumes command of his corps in Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia. Wounded at the Battle of the Wilderness in May, Longstreet missed the campaign for Richmond and spent five months recovering before retuning to his command.
Longstreet was one of the most effective corps commanders in the war. He became a brigadier general before the First Battle of Bull Run in 1861, and he quickly rose through the ranks of the Army of Northern Virginia. He became a divisional commander, and his leadership during the Seven Days' Battles and the Second Battle of Bull Run earned him the respect of the army's commander, General Robert E. Lee, who gave him command of a corps just before the Battle of Antietam in September 1862.
His leadership at Antietam, Fredericksburg, and Gettysburg sealed his reputation as a brilliant corps leader, but Longstreet was less successful when given an independent command. In spring 1863, he led a force in northern North Carolina and southern Virginia, and he made an expedition to relieve Confederate forces in Tennessee in fall 1863. He enjoyed little success in either situation.
The Union Army of the Potomac crossed the Rapidan River in early May 1864 for another attempt at capturing the Confederate capital at Richmond. At the Battle of the Wilderness on May 6, Longstreet was shot by his own troops while scouting the lines during the battle. Ironically, it was just a few miles from the spot where Confederate General Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson had been mortally wounded by his men just one year earlier. Longstreet was hit in the neck and shoulder, and he nearly died. He was incapacitated for the rest of the campaign and did not rejoin his corps until it was mired in the siege of Petersburg, Virginia, in October 1864.
After the war, Longstreet worked at a variety of government posts, including U.S. minister to Turkey. He broke with his fellow Confederates by joining the Republican Party, and he dared to criticize some of Lee's tactical decisions. Though he was reviled by many of his fellow generals for this later behavior, he outlived most of his detractors. He died in Gainesville, Georgia, at the age of 82 in 1904.
October 26: General Interest -- 1881 : Shootout at the OK Corral -- On this day in 1881, the Earp brothers face off against the Clanton-McLaury gang in a legendary shootout at the OK Corral in Tombstone, Arizona.
After silver was discovered nearby in 1877, Tombstone quickly grew into one of the richest mining towns in the Southwest. Wyatt Earp, a former Kansas police officer working as a bank security guard, and his brothers, Morgan and Virgil, the town marshal, represented "law and order" in Tombstone, though they also had reputations as being power-hungry and ruthless. The Clantons and McLaurys were cowboys who lived on a ranch outside of town and sidelined as cattle rustlers, thieves and murderers. In October 1881, the struggle between these two groups for control of Tombstone and Cochise County ended in a blaze of gunfire at the OK Corral.
On the morning of October 25, Ike Clanton and Tom McLaury came into Tombstone for supplies. Over the next 24 hours, the two men had several violent run-ins with the Earps and their friend Doc Holliday. Around 1:30 p.m. on October 26, Ike's brother Billy rode into town to join them, along with Frank McLaury and Billy Claiborne. The first person they met in the local saloon was Holliday, who was delighted to inform them that their brothers had both been pistol-whipped by the Earps. Frank and Billy immediately left the saloon, vowing revenge.
Around 3 p.m., the Earps and Holliday spotted the five members of the Clanton-McLaury gang in a vacant lot behind the OK Corral, at the end of Fremont Street. The famous gunfight that ensued lasted all of 30 seconds, and around 30 shots were fired. Though it's still debated who fired the first shot, most reports say that the shootout began when Virgil Earp pulled out his revolver and shot Billy Clanton point-blank in the chest, while Doc Holliday fired a shotgun blast at Tom McLaury's chest. Though Wyatt Earp wounded Frank McLaury with a shot in the stomach, Frank managed to get off a few shots before collapsing, as did Billy Clanton. When the dust cleared, Billy Clanton and the McLaury brothers were dead, and Virgil and Morgan Earp and Doc Holliday were wounded. Ike Clanton and Claiborne had run for the hills.
Sheriff John Behan of Cochise County, who witnessed the shootout, charged the Earps and Holliday with murder. A month later, however, a Tombstone judge found the men not guilty, ruling that they were "fully justified in committing these homicides." The famous shootout has been immortalized in many movies, including Frontier Marshal (1939), Gunfight at the OK Corral (1957), Tombstone (1993) and Wyatt Earp (1994).
1882, the Nickel Plate Railroad opened for business.
October 15, 1878 A little help from his friends -- Long before the days of Bill Gates, Thomas Edison offered a good lesson in the economics of technical innovation. On October 15, 1878, Edison opened the doors to the Edison Electric Company, but the prolific inventor didn't get the company off the ground by himself. Edison Electric was, in part, funded by wealthy investors like J.P. Morgan, who thought Edison, the inventor of the telegraph, was a wise investment. Though electric light had eluded inventors for over fifty years, Edison had vowed that he would create the first incandescent lamp. He quickly made good on his promise. His company was soon flush with profits, and competitors hoping to cash in on the burgeoning market were springing up everywhere. Under the tutelage of Morgan, Edison adopted the aggressive tactics of vertical integration, buying his rivals and transforming his company into a model modern enterprise. Without anti-trust laws to put the breaks on the feeding frenzy, Edison's shop, re-christened the General Electric Company, dominated the field with just one major competitor, the Westinghouse Company.
Hobble or restrictive skirts first appeared in Western fashion in around 1880. Advantages: Some people enjoy the feeling of legs being "hugged" together by the skirt. Due to their tightness and close proximity to the body, hobble skirts can make the wearer feel very warm, without having to wear bifurcated legwear. Disadvantages: They shorten the wearer's stride. They render the wearer unable to run. It is impossible to do things which require spreading legs or having an object between the legs
THE ART OF DETACHMENT
The Letting Go of Domination
When fear arises in communication our instinctive reaction is to "take charge" with a "fight" or "flight" response. Fleeing for cover is a simple solution, but fighting back means digging into a gunny sack of manipulating and dominating behaviors to gain the upper hand.
Do you believe you have a dominating personality? You may be surprised! Meet the ten most fearful characteristics of your life:
1. The Complainer
Complainer's are the wounded warriors of the planet, never understood, used, never listened to, always broke, and suffering from a variety of unexplainable illness.
The Complainer is driven by dozens of negative emotions and so heavily into victim mentality that if they tripped on the sidewalk they would blame the pavement. The traditional Drama Queens of our society, there is always something catastrophic occurring in the life of the Complainer.
2. The Clown
The perfect way to avoid an issue or bring the crowds attention their way, the clown uses a variety of idiot techniques to dominate and manipulate the individual or group.
You will recognize the clown for their smart remarks, ego ticklers and sarcastic jokes and then that "Hey! Just kidding heh heh!" that arrives afterwards. Smart Alec's use jokes and quips as deadly messages designed to induce a negative emotional reaction.
Clowns masterfully confuse their victims response with hurt indignation "Man you can't take a joke can you?".
3. The Ignorer
One of the most effective ways to rob another's self worth is to totally ignore them.
The "Silent Ignorer" is the master of emotional indifference and can send another "to Coventry" or "give the silent treatment" simply by switching off listening. The more dramatic approach would be a face blackening sulk that could last for days, weeks, months ... if not the rest of their lives.
The "Motor Mouth" is another version of the Ignorer. These "Gas Bags" are people who seem either unaware of, or even threatened by comfortable silences to dominate us with merciless bouts of banter.
Both ignorers manipulate through their refusal to listen.
4. The Martyr
The proverbial doormat, "The Martyr" is driven by the need to sacrifice themselves for everybody else's benefit.
When the Martyr needs co-operation you'll hear statements like, "Look at all the things I do for you ... " or " ... but somebody has to pay the bills ..." They'll give many lavish gifts and check in occasionally to remind you how good they were - or do limitless favours with a balancing ticket attached.
We are uncomfortable to be supported by a Martyr because instinctively we know that self sacrifice is their access guilt tricking and conditional obligation.
5. The Charmer
"Charmers" always have an agenda and will style their physical and psychological appearance to appeal to their victims ego, an attractively seductive tool for manipulation and control. Charmers can be great sales people or chameleons to achieve their agenda.
One Charmer might use "cutesy" behaviour to mimic the unthreatening behaviour of a child. Another Charmer may be smooth talking and calculatingly persuasive or excessively complimentary to achieve their aims.
Is it any wonder that the Worlds most successful Con-Artists use charm as their tool of trade.
6. The Disbeliever
Consumed with the distrustful emotions of fear and suspicion, "The Disbeliever" will take on the roles of Devils' Advocate or Leader of the Opposition to tabled projects or ideas. The Disbeliever will not entertain opposing points of view, unless they can switch sides away from majority opinion.
The Disbeliever is distinguishable by their trait of jumping to conclusions, judgementalism or condemnation without facts of a situation being at hand and their detective style of questioning to control and manipulate.
7. The Fixer (Male) The Rescuer (Female)
These people exist to save others from the fate of their own stupidity or incompetence. They recognise another's problems or inefficiencies as the stepping stone to give unsolicited advice, patronisation, pity or to just take over responsibility altogether.
Constantly surrounded by helpless or hopeless people, The Fixer/Rescuer could never trust enough to delegate or permit another to fall down and get back up on their own. Is it any wonder why they experience constant frustration and offer condescending style of attitude.
8. The Competitor
The Competitor aspires to an internalised status system that places themselves and others on a rating of adequate to inadequate or right to wrong. You will find the superiority of the Competitor in academic, professional, sporting, religious and society groups.
Competition is dominating in it's hierarchy therefore communication will tend to be condescending towards those perceived on a lower rung and adulation for those perceived as superior. Competitors will attempt to be better at any cost ... including dishonesty, deception and greed.
9. The Abuser
Abusive domination is destructively aggressive and is designed to demoralize, humiliate or instill fear. Abuse can range from subtle energy stealing i.e. name calling put downs (e.g. "you idiot!") to major violations of verbal and physical abuse.
In reality those with abusive personalities believe that they are the victim and that some outside influence "causes" them to react in their abusive fashion.
Abused children often unwittingly become abusive adults and as the behaviour manifests the ensuing self blame and guilt leads to self hate.
10. The Saboteur
"The Saboteur" is either threatened or jealous of the achievements of those around them, as they perceive the success of others as an indication of their own inadequacy. The Saboteur will use words or actions to sabotage the performance or self esteem of their victim.
The Saboteur will exchange or even start malicious gossip, with little or no regard to the devastating impact of the character assassination or their own behaviour.
The Saboteur will use words "Look I think it's a great idea but ..." or "Are you sure ...?" to instill uncertainty or fear and will not hesitate to withdraw love and support to achieve their aims.
If you found yourself shrinking from the discovery that you have one or more of these traits - relax! Welcome to the human race!
There is no such thing as one way Domination. Dominating behavior is always a reactive "protection" response to another form of "perceived" domination or control.
Mastering "Detachment" is the pathway to being released from unwanted reactions and building more powerful relationships. A "magnetic" disposition is nothing more or less than one that is devoid of all domination! Detachment is the skill of recognizing what "appears" to be outer control and taking "response-ability" for our reactions. We do this by identifying the underlying "Fear" or "Blame" and taking responsibility for our reaction.
As the Doctors say - "diagnosis is 9/10ths of the cure."
Simply saying "I am responsible" when challenged with such reactions allows us to take charge immediately. The key to total freedom from our dominative characteristics is simply "observation". Resistance, denial or punishment of an unwanted trait in ourselves or another will not rid of the problem, only acerbate the characteristic. Start with "Yes I do that!" ... and watch the transformation begin ...
Pauline Douglas http://www.splash.net.au/articles/domination.html
When fear arises in communication our instinctive reaction is to "take charge" with a "fight" or "flight" response. Fleeing for cover is a simple solution, but fighting back means digging into a gunny sack of manipulating and dominating behaviors to gain the upper hand.
Do you believe you have a dominating personality? You may be surprised! Meet the ten most fearful characteristics of your life:
1. The Complainer
Complainer's are the wounded warriors of the planet, never understood, used, never listened to, always broke, and suffering from a variety of unexplainable illness.
The Complainer is driven by dozens of negative emotions and so heavily into victim mentality that if they tripped on the sidewalk they would blame the pavement. The traditional Drama Queens of our society, there is always something catastrophic occurring in the life of the Complainer.
2. The Clown
The perfect way to avoid an issue or bring the crowds attention their way, the clown uses a variety of idiot techniques to dominate and manipulate the individual or group.
You will recognize the clown for their smart remarks, ego ticklers and sarcastic jokes and then that "Hey! Just kidding heh heh!" that arrives afterwards. Smart Alec's use jokes and quips as deadly messages designed to induce a negative emotional reaction.
Clowns masterfully confuse their victims response with hurt indignation "Man you can't take a joke can you?".
3. The Ignorer
One of the most effective ways to rob another's self worth is to totally ignore them.
The "Silent Ignorer" is the master of emotional indifference and can send another "to Coventry" or "give the silent treatment" simply by switching off listening. The more dramatic approach would be a face blackening sulk that could last for days, weeks, months ... if not the rest of their lives.
The "Motor Mouth" is another version of the Ignorer. These "Gas Bags" are people who seem either unaware of, or even threatened by comfortable silences to dominate us with merciless bouts of banter.
Both ignorers manipulate through their refusal to listen.
4. The Martyr
The proverbial doormat, "The Martyr" is driven by the need to sacrifice themselves for everybody else's benefit.
When the Martyr needs co-operation you'll hear statements like, "Look at all the things I do for you ... " or " ... but somebody has to pay the bills ..." They'll give many lavish gifts and check in occasionally to remind you how good they were - or do limitless favours with a balancing ticket attached.
We are uncomfortable to be supported by a Martyr because instinctively we know that self sacrifice is their access guilt tricking and conditional obligation.
5. The Charmer
"Charmers" always have an agenda and will style their physical and psychological appearance to appeal to their victims ego, an attractively seductive tool for manipulation and control. Charmers can be great sales people or chameleons to achieve their agenda.
One Charmer might use "cutesy" behaviour to mimic the unthreatening behaviour of a child. Another Charmer may be smooth talking and calculatingly persuasive or excessively complimentary to achieve their aims.
Is it any wonder that the Worlds most successful Con-Artists use charm as their tool of trade.
6. The Disbeliever
Consumed with the distrustful emotions of fear and suspicion, "The Disbeliever" will take on the roles of Devils' Advocate or Leader of the Opposition to tabled projects or ideas. The Disbeliever will not entertain opposing points of view, unless they can switch sides away from majority opinion.
The Disbeliever is distinguishable by their trait of jumping to conclusions, judgementalism or condemnation without facts of a situation being at hand and their detective style of questioning to control and manipulate.
7. The Fixer (Male) The Rescuer (Female)
These people exist to save others from the fate of their own stupidity or incompetence. They recognise another's problems or inefficiencies as the stepping stone to give unsolicited advice, patronisation, pity or to just take over responsibility altogether.
Constantly surrounded by helpless or hopeless people, The Fixer/Rescuer could never trust enough to delegate or permit another to fall down and get back up on their own. Is it any wonder why they experience constant frustration and offer condescending style of attitude.
8. The Competitor
The Competitor aspires to an internalised status system that places themselves and others on a rating of adequate to inadequate or right to wrong. You will find the superiority of the Competitor in academic, professional, sporting, religious and society groups.
Competition is dominating in it's hierarchy therefore communication will tend to be condescending towards those perceived on a lower rung and adulation for those perceived as superior. Competitors will attempt to be better at any cost ... including dishonesty, deception and greed.
9. The Abuser
Abusive domination is destructively aggressive and is designed to demoralize, humiliate or instill fear. Abuse can range from subtle energy stealing i.e. name calling put downs (e.g. "you idiot!") to major violations of verbal and physical abuse.
In reality those with abusive personalities believe that they are the victim and that some outside influence "causes" them to react in their abusive fashion.
Abused children often unwittingly become abusive adults and as the behaviour manifests the ensuing self blame and guilt leads to self hate.
10. The Saboteur
"The Saboteur" is either threatened or jealous of the achievements of those around them, as they perceive the success of others as an indication of their own inadequacy. The Saboteur will use words or actions to sabotage the performance or self esteem of their victim.
The Saboteur will exchange or even start malicious gossip, with little or no regard to the devastating impact of the character assassination or their own behaviour.
The Saboteur will use words "Look I think it's a great idea but ..." or "Are you sure ...?" to instill uncertainty or fear and will not hesitate to withdraw love and support to achieve their aims.
If you found yourself shrinking from the discovery that you have one or more of these traits - relax! Welcome to the human race!
There is no such thing as one way Domination. Dominating behavior is always a reactive "protection" response to another form of "perceived" domination or control.
Mastering "Detachment" is the pathway to being released from unwanted reactions and building more powerful relationships. A "magnetic" disposition is nothing more or less than one that is devoid of all domination! Detachment is the skill of recognizing what "appears" to be outer control and taking "response-ability" for our reactions. We do this by identifying the underlying "Fear" or "Blame" and taking responsibility for our reaction.
As the Doctors say - "diagnosis is 9/10ths of the cure."
Simply saying "I am responsible" when challenged with such reactions allows us to take charge immediately. The key to total freedom from our dominative characteristics is simply "observation". Resistance, denial or punishment of an unwanted trait in ourselves or another will not rid of the problem, only acerbate the characteristic. Start with "Yes I do that!" ... and watch the transformation begin ...
Pauline Douglas http://www.splash.net.au/articles/domination.html
NATIVE AMERICAN CODE OF ETHICS
1. Rise with the sun to pray. Pray alone. Pray often. The Great Spirit will listen, if you only speak.
2. Be tolerant of those who are lost on their path. Ignorance, conceit, anger, jealousy and greed stem from a lost soul. Pray that they will find guidance.
3. Search for yourself, by yourself. Do not allow others to make your path for you. It is your road, and yours alone. Others may walk it with you, but no one can walk it for you.
4. Treat the guests in your home with much consideration. Serve them the best food, give them the best bed and treat them with respect and honor.
5. Do not take what is not yours whether from a person, a community,the wilderness or from a culture. It was not earned nor given. It is not yours.
6. Respect all things that are placed upon this earth - whether it be people or plant.
7. Honor other people's thoughts, wishes and words. Never interrupt another or mock or rudely mimic them. Allow each person the right to personal expression.
8. Never speak of others in a bad way. The negative energy that you put out into the universe will multiply when it returns to you.
9. All persons make mistakes. And all mistakes can be forgiven.
10. Bad thoughts cause illness of the mind, body and spirit. Practice optimism.
11. Nature is not FOR us, it is a PART of us. They are part of your worldly family.
12. Children are the seeds of our future. Plant love in their hearts and water them with wisdom and life's lessons. When they are grown, give them space to grow.
13. Avoid hurting the hearts of others. The poison of your pain will return to you.
14. Be truthful at all times. Honesty is the test of one's will within this universe.
15. Keep yourself balanced. Your Mental self, Spiritual self, Emotional self, and Physical self - all need to be strong, pure and healthy. Work out the body to strengthen the mind. Grow rich in spirit to cure emotional ails.
16. Make conscious decisions as to who you will be and how you will react. Be responsible for your own actions.
17. Respect the privacy and personal space of others. Do not touch the personal property of others - especially sacred and religious objects. This is forbidden.
18. Be true to yourself first. You cannot nurture and help others if you cannot nurture and help yourself first.
19. Respect others religious beliefs. Do not force your belief on others.
20. Share your good fortune with others. Participate in charity.
2. Be tolerant of those who are lost on their path. Ignorance, conceit, anger, jealousy and greed stem from a lost soul. Pray that they will find guidance.
3. Search for yourself, by yourself. Do not allow others to make your path for you. It is your road, and yours alone. Others may walk it with you, but no one can walk it for you.
4. Treat the guests in your home with much consideration. Serve them the best food, give them the best bed and treat them with respect and honor.
5. Do not take what is not yours whether from a person, a community,the wilderness or from a culture. It was not earned nor given. It is not yours.
6. Respect all things that are placed upon this earth - whether it be people or plant.
7. Honor other people's thoughts, wishes and words. Never interrupt another or mock or rudely mimic them. Allow each person the right to personal expression.
8. Never speak of others in a bad way. The negative energy that you put out into the universe will multiply when it returns to you.
9. All persons make mistakes. And all mistakes can be forgiven.
10. Bad thoughts cause illness of the mind, body and spirit. Practice optimism.
11. Nature is not FOR us, it is a PART of us. They are part of your worldly family.
12. Children are the seeds of our future. Plant love in their hearts and water them with wisdom and life's lessons. When they are grown, give them space to grow.
13. Avoid hurting the hearts of others. The poison of your pain will return to you.
14. Be truthful at all times. Honesty is the test of one's will within this universe.
15. Keep yourself balanced. Your Mental self, Spiritual self, Emotional self, and Physical self - all need to be strong, pure and healthy. Work out the body to strengthen the mind. Grow rich in spirit to cure emotional ails.
16. Make conscious decisions as to who you will be and how you will react. Be responsible for your own actions.
17. Respect the privacy and personal space of others. Do not touch the personal property of others - especially sacred and religious objects. This is forbidden.
18. Be true to yourself first. You cannot nurture and help others if you cannot nurture and help yourself first.
19. Respect others religious beliefs. Do not force your belief on others.
20. Share your good fortune with others. Participate in charity.
Victorian Hair
Pomatum Recipes
Pomatum for the Hair may be made as follows:-- Into a perfectly clean and well-tinned stew-pan, put one pint of very fresh oil of sweet almonds; set it over a slow fire, and gradually melt it in one ounce and a half of spermaceti, and two ounces of very fresh hog's lard. The heat must be barely sufficient to melt these substances, for a high temperature would make the oil rancid in a few days. The whole being melted, pour it into a china or earthenware basin; and when almost cold, stir into it whatever essential oils will communicate the perfume you prefer. Pot it off, and, when cold, tie paper over each pot. Peterson's Magazine (1849-1892); Nov 1857; VOL.XXXII., No. 5.; APS Online, pg. 365
Pomatum for the Hair. Take one ounce of spermaceti, one ounce of castor oil, four ounces of olive oil, and two pennyworth of bergamot, and melt them together in a pot, placed in boiling water. stirring the mixture all the time; when thoroughly mixed, pour the mixture into pots while hot.-- "Housewife's Department" Flag of Our Union; Jan 2, 1858; 13, 1; APS Online, pg. 7
Elder Flower Pomatum:--Take of elder flower water, four ounces; fine mutton suet, two ounces; best lard, two ounces; melt the suet and lard together, with as little heat as possible, then add the elder oil, and beat up the mixture with a fork (to make it light) till nearly cold. If agreeable, any other perfume may be added before the pomatum is set.-- "The Toilet" Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine (1854-1882); Jul 1855; 51, APS Online, pg. 79
A Cheap Pomatum--Take a quarter of a pound of fresh lard, and about half an ounce of white wax, and twopenny-worth of rose hair oil, mix well together; this makes a good, cheap pomatum, and will not injure the hair. Instead of rose hair oil you may use a small quantity of any liquid scent you please.-- Peterson's Magazine (1849-1892) ; Oct 1858; VOL. XXXIV., No. 4.; APS Online, pg. 293
A Good Pomade for General Use One pound of beef suet to two pounds of lard. Care must be taken to procure them as fresh as possible. And, after being separated from all skin and fibre, they must be pounded in a mortar, and then placed in a covered pan of earthenware or metal. This must stand in a vessel of hot water until the fat slowly becomes liquid. It will be found that all the refuse will then be separated, and will sink to the bottom of the pan. The fat in its liquid state is then passed through a filter (clean flannel is the best). The perfume must now be added, and may be either essence of lemon, bergamot, or any other scent preferred; about three drachms will suffice for the quantity of fat warmed. After this, with a wooden spoon, or knife, the mixture should be continually stirred or beaten until it be thoroughly cool. Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine Oct. 1864, pg. 351
A Capital Pomade.-- Dissolve thoroughly over a slow fire two ounces of white wax and half an ounce of palm oil, with a flask of the best olive oil. Stir it till nearly cold; then add once ounce of castor oil and about three pennyworth of bergamot or any other perfume you please.-- Peterson's Magazine (1849-1892) ; Oct 1858; VOL. XXXIV., No. 4.; APS Online, pg. 293
Bandoline for the Hair: Crush the pips of the ripe quince between two pieces of paper; then put them into a tumbler of cold water to stand all night, when the water will have become glutinous and fit for use; drop into it a small quantity of spirits of wine, and a few drops of essence of rose, jasmine, or any ether perfume. Or: Take half an ounce dried quince pips, pour on them one pint of boiling water, and strain when cold. Should it not be sufficiently glutinous, boil it again, and pour over the pips a second time. Scent with rose, bergamot, or any other scent. Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine. November 1863. p. 477
Hair Pomatum.-- To a flask of the finest Lucca oil add an ounce and a half of spermaceti, half an ounce of white wax, and scent of any kind. Cut up the wax and spermaceti, and put it in the oven to melt with a little of the oil. When well mixed, pour in the remainder of the oil, and stir until cold: add the scent when the mixture is cool. If the hair is inclining to gray, add, by drops, a teaspoonful of balsam of Peru, taking care to stir it well in.-- "The Toilet" Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine (1854-1882) ; May 1863; 66, APS Online, pg. 486.
To Make Soft Pomatum.-- Beat half a pound of unsalted fresh lard in common water; then soak and beat it in two rose-waters, drain it, and beat it with two spoonfuls of brandy; let it drain from this; add to it some essence of lemon, and keep it in small pots.- Petersons 1861, p. 314
Receipt for Pomatum: One pint of olive oil, two ounces of white wax, one drachm of tincture of cantharides; oil of roses, two drops (or any other scent if preferred.) Put the oil in a jug, on a hob, and dissolve the wax in it, and then mix in the other ingredients; to be poured into the pots while hot. Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine October 1864, pg. 351
Excellent Pomade at Moderate Cost: The following receipt will furnish an excellent pomade at a moderate cost: Two ounces of castor-oil, three ounces of best olive-oil, one ounce of spermaceti. Dissolve the spermaceti in an earthen jar or pipkin over a slow fire; then add the castor and olive oils. When nearly cold, stir in a small quantity of bergamot, with a few drops of oil of cloves, cinnamon, and almond mixed.- Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine October 1864, pg. 351
Receipt for Pomatum: Six ounces of castor-oil, six ounces of olive-oil, four ounces of spermaceti, two drachms of oil of lavender, ten drops of oil of cinnamon, two drachms of essence of bergamot, two drachms of essence of lemon. melt the oils and sperm together, gradually warming them on the stove and keep stirring; when nearly cold add the scent.- Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine October 1864, pg. 351
To Make Soft Pomatum.-- Soak half a pound of clear beef-marrow and one pound of unsalted fresh lard in water two or three days, changing and beating it every day. Put it into a sieve, and, when dry, into a jar, and the jar into a saucepan of water. When melted, pour it into a basin and heat it with two spoonfuls of brandy; drain off the brandy, and then add essence of lemon, bergamot, or any other scent that is liked.--"The Toilet" Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine (1854-1882); oct 1863; 67, APS Online, pg. 374
Hard Pomatum.-- Prepare equal quantities of beef-marrow and mutton suet as before, using the brandy to preserve it, and adding the scent; then pour it into moulds, or if you have none, into phials of the size you choose the rolls to be. When cold, break the bottles, clear away the glass carefully, and put paper around the rolls.--"The Toilet" Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine (1854-1882); oct 1863; 67, APS Online, pg. 374
Hard Pomatum.-- Take equal quantities of marrow, melted and strained, lard, and castor oil; warm all together; add any scent you please; stir until cold, and put into pots.-- "The Toilet" Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine (1854-1882); oct 1863; 67, APS Online, pg. 374
Lemon Pomatum.-- Best lard, two pounds; suet, half a pound; dissolve with a gentle heat, and mix them well together. Then add four ounces of orange-flower water, and four ounces of rose-water, and mix them well together before adding, or they will separate. Having done this, add a quarter of an ounce of essence of lemon; half a drachm of musk, and half a drachm of oil of thyme. Petersons 1860 p. 163
Crystalline Pomade.-Mix four ounces of oil of almonds, four ounces of best olive oil, one ounce of spermaceti, two ounces of castor oil. Melt these in a covered jar by the side of the fire; then stir in seventy drops of the following perfume, which should have been previously kept in a stopped phial. Then pour it into your cream jars, cover, and let it stand till cold. A cheaper perfume than the following, such as bergamot or almond flavor, which some people like, may well be used; but the subjoined is the best: Mix together, and shake well in a stopped phial, eight drops of oil of cloves, twenty-five drops of English oil of lavender, one drachm each of essence of bergamot and essence of lemon, and ten drops each of the oil of cassia and otto of roses. Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine Sept. 1863 Pg. 274
Circassian Cream (1859)
Marrow Pomatum (1859)
Jessamine Pomatum.-- Melt a pound of fresh, sweet lard; skim it, and when cold, wash it three times with spring water. Free it from water, and spread it an inch thick on a plate; strew it thickly with jessamine flowers.-- "Recipes for the Toilet." Graham's American Monthly Magazine of Literature, Art, and Fashion (1844-1858); Oct 1856, VOL.XLIX., No. 4., APS Online, pg 364.
Pomade of Cucumber (1860)
Pomade Divine (1863)
To Color Pomatum.-- Yellow, by palm oil or annatto; red, by alkanet root; and green by guaiacum, or the green leaves of parsley. -Peterson's 1860 p. 163
A Cheap Pomatum.-- Half an ounce of white wax; half an ounce of spermaceti; eight ounces of olive oil. Dissolve in a basin set in hot water before the fire; add some scent just before pouring into bottles. Or- Get a quarter of a pound of hog's lard, and three quarters of a tumbler of olive oil, about a tablespoon of castor oil, a dessert spoonful of eau-de-cologne, and a pennyworth of gum; the hog's lard and the oil should be warmed a little, till the hog's lard melt [sic], then the rest should be put in. It should be allowed to cool before use. Or- Half a pint of best olive oil, half an ounce of best yellow beeswax, half an ounce of spermaceti, and about two pennyworth of any pleasant perfume. Cut the wax and sperm up small, melt in the oil, and add the scent. -"Receipts for the Toilet" Peterson's Magazine (1849-1892); Jan 1861; VOL. XXXIX., No. 1, pg. 94
Hair Oil Recipes
Oil of Roses for the Hair.-- Olive oil, one quart; attar of roses, one drachm; oil of rosemary, one drachm. Mix. It may be colored by steeping a little alkanet root in the oil (with heat) before scenting it. It strengthens and beautifies the hair. Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine. November 1863. p. 477
Macassar Oil.-- It is said to be compounded of the following ingredients:-- To three quarts of common oil, add half a pint of spirits of wine, three ounces of cinnamon powder, and two ounces of bergamot; heat the whole in a large pipkin. On removing from the fire, add three or four small pieces of alkanet root, and keep the vessel closely covered for several hours. When cool, it may be filtered through a funnel lined with filtering paper. Whether oils are used or not, the hair ought, night and morning, to be carefully and elaborately brushed. This is one of the best preservatives of its beauty.- Peterson's 1861
Elder Flower Oil for the Hair.-- Take of the best almond or olive oil, one pound; elder flowers (free from stalk), two ounces; place the flowers in the oil in a jar or wide-mouthed bottle; let them remain forty-eight hours; then strain. The oil must now stand in a quiet and cool place for at least a month, in order to clear itself. The bright part being poured off, is fit for use. If considered too strong, plain oil may be added.--"The Toilet" Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine (1854-1882); Jul 1855; 51, APS Online, pg. 79
Oil for the Hair.-- Oil of ben, one pint; civet, three grains; Italian oil of jasmin, three fluid ounces; attar of roses, three minims. Mix, and it is ready for use.-- Peterson's Magazine (1849-1892); Nov 1857; VOL.XXXII., No. 5.; APS Online, pg. 365
An Excellent Hair Oil.-- Boil together half a pint of port wine, one pint and a half of sweet oil, and half a pound of green southernwood. Strain the mixture though a linen rag several times, adding, at the last operation, two ounces of bear's grease. If fresh southernwood is added each time it passes through the linen, the composition will be improved. -Peterson's 1861
Hair Oils, &c..-- When used moderately, oils, ointments, &c, tend to strengthen the hair, especially when it is naturally dry. When used in excess, however, they clog the pores, prevent the escape of natural secretions, and cause the hair to wither and fall off. The varieties of "oils", "greases," "ointments" rivaling each other in their high-sounding pretensions, which are daily imposed upon the public credulity, are interminable. We add one or two of the most simple. For Thickening the Hair.-- To one ounce of Palma Christi oil, add a sufficient quantity of bergamot or lavender to scent it. Apply it to the parts where it is most needed, brushing it well into the hair. An Ointment for the Hair.-- Mix two ounces of bear's grease, half an ounce of honey, one drachm of laudanum, three drachms of the powder of southernwood, three drachms of the balsam of Peru, one and a half drachms of the ashes of the roots of bulrushes, and a small quantity of the oil of sweet almonds. -Peterson's 1861, p. 488
General Hair Care
Cleansing the Hair.-- Nothing but good can be derived from a due attention to cleaning the hair. Once a week is perhaps desirable, but this will depend upon the individual; persons with light, thin, and dry hair will require it more seldom than those with thick, greasy hair, or who perspire very freely. Nothing is better than soap and water. The soap should be mild, and well and plentifully rubbed in the hair.-- "Receipts for the Toilet" Peterson's Magazine (1849-1892); Jan 1861; VOL. XXXIX., No. 1, pg. 94
To Promote the growth of the Hair.-- Mix equal parts of olive oil and spirits of rosemary, add a few drops of oil of nutmeg. If the hair be rubbed every night with this, and the proportion be very gradually increased, it will answer every purpose of facilitating the growth of the hair. -Peterson's 1861
To Restore the Hair.--When ill-health has removed it, care should be taken to keep the roots moist and free from scurf. One of the simplest is olive oil, slightly scented, or pomatum, made of beef or mutton suet and fresh lard, with the marrow from the bones; the latter is very efficacious. Onions rubbed on the scalp will stimulate the growth of the hair, but this is an unpleasant application. Many of the scented oils advertised give a fine gloss to the hair, but should be used with caution. Oil of walnut is much reccomended for restoring the hair. "Recipes for the Toilet." Graham's American Monthly Magazine of Literature, Art, and Fashion (1844-1858); Oct 1856, VOL.XLIX., No. 4., APS Online, pg 364.
To Restore Hair-- Hair, when removed by illness or old age, has been restored by the following simple means; though they are not likely to prove efficacious in all cases. Rub the bald places frequently with an onion.-"The Toilet" Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine (1854-1882); Jul 1855; 51, APS Online, pg. 79
Hair Wash.--One drachm of tincture of lytta, half an ounce of spirits of wine, half an ounce of spirits of rosemary. Put these into a bottle, and add half a pint of cold water. - Peterson's 1860, p. 163
Hair Wash.-- An excellent and perfectly harmless hair wash may be made as follows:-- take two or three pennyworth of rosemary, strip the leaves from the stalks, and put them into a jar, with nearly half a pint of cold water. Place the jar near the fire, and let the contents simmer gently for an hour or two without setting or burning. When the water is somewhat reduced, the infusion will be sufficiently string. Then add half a pint of rum, and simmer the whole for a while longer. When cold, strain the liquid from the leaves, and keep it in a bottle to be ready for use. Apply it to the roots of the hair with a small sponge, or a piece of flannel. Egg wash for the hair is made by beating up the yoke of a raw egg and adding it to the rosemary infusion made as above. -Peterson's 1860, p. 321
Cleaning Hair Brushes.-- It is said that soda dissolved in cold water is better than soap and hot water. The latter very soon softens the hairs, and the rubbing completes their destruction. Soda having an affinity for grease, cleans the brush with very little friction. -Peterson's 1861
To Clean Head and Clothes-Brushes.-- Put a tablespoonful of Pearlash into a pint of boiling water. Having fastened a bit of sponge to the end of a stick, dip it into the solution, and wash the brush with it. Next pour over it some clean, hot water, and put it aside for a short time; then drain and wipe it with a cloth, and dry it before the fire. p. 314
Hair Brushes.-- To clean hair-brushes, put a spoon-ful of pearlash into a pint of boiling water, then fasten a bit of sponge to the end of a stick, dip it into the solution, and wash the brush. Next pour some hot water over it, and dry before the fire.-- "The Toilet" Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine (1854-1882); Jul 1855; 51, APS Online, pg. 79
To Prevent the Hair Falling Off.--Put one pound of unadulterated honey into a still, with three handfuls of the tendrils of grape-vine, and the same quantity of rosemary tops. Distill as cool and slowly as possible. The liquor may be allowed to drop till it tastes sour.--"Recipes for the Toilet." Graham's American Monthly Magazine of Literature, Art, and Fashion (1844-1858); Oct 1856, VOL.XLIX., No. 4., APS Online, pg 364.
Receipt for Preventing the Hair Falling Off.-- Onions must be rubbed frequently on the part. The stimulating powers of this vegetable are of essential service in restoring the tone of the skin, and assisting the capillary vessels in sending forth new hair; but it is not infallible. Should it succeed, however, the growth of these new hairs may be assisted by the oil of myrtle-berries, the repute of which, perhaps, is greater than its real efficiency. These applications are cheap and harmless, even where they do no good; a character cannot be said of the numerous quack remedies that meet the eye in every direction. --"Receipts for the Toilet" Peterson's Magazine (1849-1892); Jan 1861; VOL. XXXIX., No. 1, pg. 94
For Removing Scurf From the Head :-- Take two ounces of castor oil, six ounces of olive oil, and an ounce and a half of tincture of cantharides; mix it well, and add two drachms of essence of bergamot, to render it agreeable. Or-- Mix equal quantities of rum and oil, and use it like oil alone.- Peterson's 1860 p. 488
A Receipt for Scurf in the Head that will not Injure the Color of the Hair.-- The following is a most efficacious, safe, and agreeable receipt. I have tried it, and found it answer exceedingly well. Into a pint of water drop a lump of quicklime, the size of a walnut; let it stand all night; then pour the water off, clear off sediment, or deposit, add a quarter of a pint of the best vinegar, and wash the head, thoroughly wetting the roots of the hair.
Pomatum-- The following is the recipe of Dupuytren, the celebrated French physician, to prepare a pomatum to prevent baldness, and promote the growth of human hair. it is muc esteemed by the medical faculty, one of whom furnished it for the columns of the Southern Planter, the editor of which, since its receipt, has applied it with great success, to an inveterate ?etter on the head of a little boy in his own family: Take of Beef Marrow (well tried) 8 oz. Sugar of lead (well pulverized) 1 drachm Old Brandy 1 oz. Oil of Cloves 15 drops Tincture of Cantharides, (Spanish flies) 15 scrup. Mix intimately, and rub the bald part, or that likely to become so, every evening.- The American Farmer, and Spirit of the Agricultural Journals of the Day, 1839(Sep 29, 1841); 3,19; APS Online; pg. 149
Pomatum to Prevent Hair From Falling Off.-- Take the marrow out of two beef bones, put it into cold water, and let it remain until it is quite clean and white. Before this is effected the water must be changed several times. Dissolve and strain the marrow; then add four ounces of the best castor oil. Beat both well together until cold, then add, before the pomatum becomes firm, half an ounce of strong scent. This pomatum should be well rubbed into the skin of the head every night, and the hair should be well brushed both night and morning.--"The Toilet" Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine (1854-1882); May 1863; 66, APS Online, pg. 486.
Removing Superfluous Hair. The only method of effectually removing superfluous hair, is by means of small forceps made for the purpose. Only five or six should be removed at once, in the course of twenty-four hours, and those not close together. The parts should afterwards be washed in spirits of wine.--"Recipes for the Toilet." Graham's American Monthly Magazine of Literature, Art, and Fashion (1844-1858); Oct 1856, VOL.XLIX., No. 4., APS Online, pg 364.
Glossary and Instructions for Unusual Ingredients in 19th c. hair care receipts
Ingredients
civet : 2. A yellowish or brownish unctuous substance, having a strong musky smell, obtained from sacs or glands in the anal pouch of several animals of the Civet genus, especially of the African Civet-cat. It is used in perfumery. "civet, n.1"The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989. OED Online . Oxford University Press. 29 Aug 2007, .
isinglass 1. A firm whitish semitransparent substance (being a comparatively pure form of gelatin) obtained from the sounds or air-bladders of some fresh-water fishes, esp. the sturgeon; used in cookery for making jellies, etc., also for clarifying liquors, in the manufacture of glue, and for other purposes. Also extended to similar substances made from hides, hoofs, etc. "isinglass, n.1"The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989. OED Online . Oxford University Press. 29 Aug 2007, .
Oil of Ben : oil obtained from the ben-nut. "oil of ben, n.3"The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989. OED Online . Oxford University Press. 29 Aug 2007, .
Perfumed Oils.--These are prepared by soaking cotton in fine olive oil, and spreading it in layers, over which such flowers as violets, jessamine, or roses, should be lightly strewn. The oil will thus imbibe the scent of the flowers, and should be pressed from the cotton, and, if necessary, filtered through flannel. Most of the French scented oils are made by this process. -- "Recipes for the Toilet." Graham's American Monthly Magazine of Literature, Art, and Fashion (1844-1858); Oct 1856, VOL.XLIX., No. 4., APS Online, pg 364.
Rose Water.Put roses into water, and add one or two drops only of vitriolic acid. The water assumes the color, and becomes impregnated with the flowers.-- "Recipes for the Toilet." Graham's American Monthly Magazine of Literature, Art, and Fashion (1844-1858); Oct 1856, VOL.XLIX., No. 4., APS Online, pg 364.
Measurements
Drachm 2. A weight approximately equivalent to that of the Greek coin. Hence, in Apothecaries' weight = 60 grains, or of an ounce, in Avoirdupois weight = 27 grains or of an ounce. (Spelt drachm or dram.) Also, the Arabic DIRHEM. fluid drachm = of fluid ounce, = 60 minims or drops. "drachm, n. 2" The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989. OED Online. Oxford University Press. 29 Aug 2007, .
minim: b. The smallest unit of liquid capacity in apothecaries' measure, equal to a sixtieth of a fluid drachm (approx. 0.47 ml). The measure is roughly equivalent to one drop of liquid. "minim, n.1"The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989. OED Online . Oxford University Press. 29 Aug 2007, .
Scruple 1. A unit of weight = 20 grains, drachm, oz. Apothecaries' weight. "scruple, n.1"The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989. OED Online. Oxford University Press. 29 Aug 2007, .
From www.gothampatterns.com/hair.html
Pomatum for the Hair may be made as follows:-- Into a perfectly clean and well-tinned stew-pan, put one pint of very fresh oil of sweet almonds; set it over a slow fire, and gradually melt it in one ounce and a half of spermaceti, and two ounces of very fresh hog's lard. The heat must be barely sufficient to melt these substances, for a high temperature would make the oil rancid in a few days. The whole being melted, pour it into a china or earthenware basin; and when almost cold, stir into it whatever essential oils will communicate the perfume you prefer. Pot it off, and, when cold, tie paper over each pot. Peterson's Magazine (1849-1892); Nov 1857; VOL.XXXII., No. 5.; APS Online, pg. 365
Pomatum for the Hair. Take one ounce of spermaceti, one ounce of castor oil, four ounces of olive oil, and two pennyworth of bergamot, and melt them together in a pot, placed in boiling water. stirring the mixture all the time; when thoroughly mixed, pour the mixture into pots while hot.-- "Housewife's Department" Flag of Our Union; Jan 2, 1858; 13, 1; APS Online, pg. 7
Elder Flower Pomatum:--Take of elder flower water, four ounces; fine mutton suet, two ounces; best lard, two ounces; melt the suet and lard together, with as little heat as possible, then add the elder oil, and beat up the mixture with a fork (to make it light) till nearly cold. If agreeable, any other perfume may be added before the pomatum is set.-- "The Toilet" Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine (1854-1882); Jul 1855; 51, APS Online, pg. 79
A Cheap Pomatum--Take a quarter of a pound of fresh lard, and about half an ounce of white wax, and twopenny-worth of rose hair oil, mix well together; this makes a good, cheap pomatum, and will not injure the hair. Instead of rose hair oil you may use a small quantity of any liquid scent you please.-- Peterson's Magazine (1849-1892) ; Oct 1858; VOL. XXXIV., No. 4.; APS Online, pg. 293
A Good Pomade for General Use One pound of beef suet to two pounds of lard. Care must be taken to procure them as fresh as possible. And, after being separated from all skin and fibre, they must be pounded in a mortar, and then placed in a covered pan of earthenware or metal. This must stand in a vessel of hot water until the fat slowly becomes liquid. It will be found that all the refuse will then be separated, and will sink to the bottom of the pan. The fat in its liquid state is then passed through a filter (clean flannel is the best). The perfume must now be added, and may be either essence of lemon, bergamot, or any other scent preferred; about three drachms will suffice for the quantity of fat warmed. After this, with a wooden spoon, or knife, the mixture should be continually stirred or beaten until it be thoroughly cool. Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine Oct. 1864, pg. 351
A Capital Pomade.-- Dissolve thoroughly over a slow fire two ounces of white wax and half an ounce of palm oil, with a flask of the best olive oil. Stir it till nearly cold; then add once ounce of castor oil and about three pennyworth of bergamot or any other perfume you please.-- Peterson's Magazine (1849-1892) ; Oct 1858; VOL. XXXIV., No. 4.; APS Online, pg. 293
Bandoline for the Hair: Crush the pips of the ripe quince between two pieces of paper; then put them into a tumbler of cold water to stand all night, when the water will have become glutinous and fit for use; drop into it a small quantity of spirits of wine, and a few drops of essence of rose, jasmine, or any ether perfume. Or: Take half an ounce dried quince pips, pour on them one pint of boiling water, and strain when cold. Should it not be sufficiently glutinous, boil it again, and pour over the pips a second time. Scent with rose, bergamot, or any other scent. Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine. November 1863. p. 477
Hair Pomatum.-- To a flask of the finest Lucca oil add an ounce and a half of spermaceti, half an ounce of white wax, and scent of any kind. Cut up the wax and spermaceti, and put it in the oven to melt with a little of the oil. When well mixed, pour in the remainder of the oil, and stir until cold: add the scent when the mixture is cool. If the hair is inclining to gray, add, by drops, a teaspoonful of balsam of Peru, taking care to stir it well in.-- "The Toilet" Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine (1854-1882) ; May 1863; 66, APS Online, pg. 486.
To Make Soft Pomatum.-- Beat half a pound of unsalted fresh lard in common water; then soak and beat it in two rose-waters, drain it, and beat it with two spoonfuls of brandy; let it drain from this; add to it some essence of lemon, and keep it in small pots.- Petersons 1861, p. 314
Receipt for Pomatum: One pint of olive oil, two ounces of white wax, one drachm of tincture of cantharides; oil of roses, two drops (or any other scent if preferred.) Put the oil in a jug, on a hob, and dissolve the wax in it, and then mix in the other ingredients; to be poured into the pots while hot. Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine October 1864, pg. 351
Excellent Pomade at Moderate Cost: The following receipt will furnish an excellent pomade at a moderate cost: Two ounces of castor-oil, three ounces of best olive-oil, one ounce of spermaceti. Dissolve the spermaceti in an earthen jar or pipkin over a slow fire; then add the castor and olive oils. When nearly cold, stir in a small quantity of bergamot, with a few drops of oil of cloves, cinnamon, and almond mixed.- Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine October 1864, pg. 351
Receipt for Pomatum: Six ounces of castor-oil, six ounces of olive-oil, four ounces of spermaceti, two drachms of oil of lavender, ten drops of oil of cinnamon, two drachms of essence of bergamot, two drachms of essence of lemon. melt the oils and sperm together, gradually warming them on the stove and keep stirring; when nearly cold add the scent.- Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine October 1864, pg. 351
To Make Soft Pomatum.-- Soak half a pound of clear beef-marrow and one pound of unsalted fresh lard in water two or three days, changing and beating it every day. Put it into a sieve, and, when dry, into a jar, and the jar into a saucepan of water. When melted, pour it into a basin and heat it with two spoonfuls of brandy; drain off the brandy, and then add essence of lemon, bergamot, or any other scent that is liked.--"The Toilet" Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine (1854-1882); oct 1863; 67, APS Online, pg. 374
Hard Pomatum.-- Prepare equal quantities of beef-marrow and mutton suet as before, using the brandy to preserve it, and adding the scent; then pour it into moulds, or if you have none, into phials of the size you choose the rolls to be. When cold, break the bottles, clear away the glass carefully, and put paper around the rolls.--"The Toilet" Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine (1854-1882); oct 1863; 67, APS Online, pg. 374
Hard Pomatum.-- Take equal quantities of marrow, melted and strained, lard, and castor oil; warm all together; add any scent you please; stir until cold, and put into pots.-- "The Toilet" Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine (1854-1882); oct 1863; 67, APS Online, pg. 374
Lemon Pomatum.-- Best lard, two pounds; suet, half a pound; dissolve with a gentle heat, and mix them well together. Then add four ounces of orange-flower water, and four ounces of rose-water, and mix them well together before adding, or they will separate. Having done this, add a quarter of an ounce of essence of lemon; half a drachm of musk, and half a drachm of oil of thyme. Petersons 1860 p. 163
Crystalline Pomade.-Mix four ounces of oil of almonds, four ounces of best olive oil, one ounce of spermaceti, two ounces of castor oil. Melt these in a covered jar by the side of the fire; then stir in seventy drops of the following perfume, which should have been previously kept in a stopped phial. Then pour it into your cream jars, cover, and let it stand till cold. A cheaper perfume than the following, such as bergamot or almond flavor, which some people like, may well be used; but the subjoined is the best: Mix together, and shake well in a stopped phial, eight drops of oil of cloves, twenty-five drops of English oil of lavender, one drachm each of essence of bergamot and essence of lemon, and ten drops each of the oil of cassia and otto of roses. Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine Sept. 1863 Pg. 274
Circassian Cream (1859)
Marrow Pomatum (1859)
Jessamine Pomatum.-- Melt a pound of fresh, sweet lard; skim it, and when cold, wash it three times with spring water. Free it from water, and spread it an inch thick on a plate; strew it thickly with jessamine flowers.-- "Recipes for the Toilet." Graham's American Monthly Magazine of Literature, Art, and Fashion (1844-1858); Oct 1856, VOL.XLIX., No. 4., APS Online, pg 364.
Pomade of Cucumber (1860)
Pomade Divine (1863)
To Color Pomatum.-- Yellow, by palm oil or annatto; red, by alkanet root; and green by guaiacum, or the green leaves of parsley. -Peterson's 1860 p. 163
A Cheap Pomatum.-- Half an ounce of white wax; half an ounce of spermaceti; eight ounces of olive oil. Dissolve in a basin set in hot water before the fire; add some scent just before pouring into bottles. Or- Get a quarter of a pound of hog's lard, and three quarters of a tumbler of olive oil, about a tablespoon of castor oil, a dessert spoonful of eau-de-cologne, and a pennyworth of gum; the hog's lard and the oil should be warmed a little, till the hog's lard melt [sic], then the rest should be put in. It should be allowed to cool before use. Or- Half a pint of best olive oil, half an ounce of best yellow beeswax, half an ounce of spermaceti, and about two pennyworth of any pleasant perfume. Cut the wax and sperm up small, melt in the oil, and add the scent. -"Receipts for the Toilet" Peterson's Magazine (1849-1892); Jan 1861; VOL. XXXIX., No. 1, pg. 94
Hair Oil Recipes
Oil of Roses for the Hair.-- Olive oil, one quart; attar of roses, one drachm; oil of rosemary, one drachm. Mix. It may be colored by steeping a little alkanet root in the oil (with heat) before scenting it. It strengthens and beautifies the hair. Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine. November 1863. p. 477
Macassar Oil.-- It is said to be compounded of the following ingredients:-- To three quarts of common oil, add half a pint of spirits of wine, three ounces of cinnamon powder, and two ounces of bergamot; heat the whole in a large pipkin. On removing from the fire, add three or four small pieces of alkanet root, and keep the vessel closely covered for several hours. When cool, it may be filtered through a funnel lined with filtering paper. Whether oils are used or not, the hair ought, night and morning, to be carefully and elaborately brushed. This is one of the best preservatives of its beauty.- Peterson's 1861
Elder Flower Oil for the Hair.-- Take of the best almond or olive oil, one pound; elder flowers (free from stalk), two ounces; place the flowers in the oil in a jar or wide-mouthed bottle; let them remain forty-eight hours; then strain. The oil must now stand in a quiet and cool place for at least a month, in order to clear itself. The bright part being poured off, is fit for use. If considered too strong, plain oil may be added.--"The Toilet" Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine (1854-1882); Jul 1855; 51, APS Online, pg. 79
Oil for the Hair.-- Oil of ben, one pint; civet, three grains; Italian oil of jasmin, three fluid ounces; attar of roses, three minims. Mix, and it is ready for use.-- Peterson's Magazine (1849-1892); Nov 1857; VOL.XXXII., No. 5.; APS Online, pg. 365
An Excellent Hair Oil.-- Boil together half a pint of port wine, one pint and a half of sweet oil, and half a pound of green southernwood. Strain the mixture though a linen rag several times, adding, at the last operation, two ounces of bear's grease. If fresh southernwood is added each time it passes through the linen, the composition will be improved. -Peterson's 1861
Hair Oils, &c..-- When used moderately, oils, ointments, &c, tend to strengthen the hair, especially when it is naturally dry. When used in excess, however, they clog the pores, prevent the escape of natural secretions, and cause the hair to wither and fall off. The varieties of "oils", "greases," "ointments" rivaling each other in their high-sounding pretensions, which are daily imposed upon the public credulity, are interminable. We add one or two of the most simple. For Thickening the Hair.-- To one ounce of Palma Christi oil, add a sufficient quantity of bergamot or lavender to scent it. Apply it to the parts where it is most needed, brushing it well into the hair. An Ointment for the Hair.-- Mix two ounces of bear's grease, half an ounce of honey, one drachm of laudanum, three drachms of the powder of southernwood, three drachms of the balsam of Peru, one and a half drachms of the ashes of the roots of bulrushes, and a small quantity of the oil of sweet almonds. -Peterson's 1861, p. 488
General Hair Care
Cleansing the Hair.-- Nothing but good can be derived from a due attention to cleaning the hair. Once a week is perhaps desirable, but this will depend upon the individual; persons with light, thin, and dry hair will require it more seldom than those with thick, greasy hair, or who perspire very freely. Nothing is better than soap and water. The soap should be mild, and well and plentifully rubbed in the hair.-- "Receipts for the Toilet" Peterson's Magazine (1849-1892); Jan 1861; VOL. XXXIX., No. 1, pg. 94
To Promote the growth of the Hair.-- Mix equal parts of olive oil and spirits of rosemary, add a few drops of oil of nutmeg. If the hair be rubbed every night with this, and the proportion be very gradually increased, it will answer every purpose of facilitating the growth of the hair. -Peterson's 1861
To Restore the Hair.--When ill-health has removed it, care should be taken to keep the roots moist and free from scurf. One of the simplest is olive oil, slightly scented, or pomatum, made of beef or mutton suet and fresh lard, with the marrow from the bones; the latter is very efficacious. Onions rubbed on the scalp will stimulate the growth of the hair, but this is an unpleasant application. Many of the scented oils advertised give a fine gloss to the hair, but should be used with caution. Oil of walnut is much reccomended for restoring the hair. "Recipes for the Toilet." Graham's American Monthly Magazine of Literature, Art, and Fashion (1844-1858); Oct 1856, VOL.XLIX., No. 4., APS Online, pg 364.
To Restore Hair-- Hair, when removed by illness or old age, has been restored by the following simple means; though they are not likely to prove efficacious in all cases. Rub the bald places frequently with an onion.-"The Toilet" Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine (1854-1882); Jul 1855; 51, APS Online, pg. 79
Hair Wash.--One drachm of tincture of lytta, half an ounce of spirits of wine, half an ounce of spirits of rosemary. Put these into a bottle, and add half a pint of cold water. - Peterson's 1860, p. 163
Hair Wash.-- An excellent and perfectly harmless hair wash may be made as follows:-- take two or three pennyworth of rosemary, strip the leaves from the stalks, and put them into a jar, with nearly half a pint of cold water. Place the jar near the fire, and let the contents simmer gently for an hour or two without setting or burning. When the water is somewhat reduced, the infusion will be sufficiently string. Then add half a pint of rum, and simmer the whole for a while longer. When cold, strain the liquid from the leaves, and keep it in a bottle to be ready for use. Apply it to the roots of the hair with a small sponge, or a piece of flannel. Egg wash for the hair is made by beating up the yoke of a raw egg and adding it to the rosemary infusion made as above. -Peterson's 1860, p. 321
Cleaning Hair Brushes.-- It is said that soda dissolved in cold water is better than soap and hot water. The latter very soon softens the hairs, and the rubbing completes their destruction. Soda having an affinity for grease, cleans the brush with very little friction. -Peterson's 1861
To Clean Head and Clothes-Brushes.-- Put a tablespoonful of Pearlash into a pint of boiling water. Having fastened a bit of sponge to the end of a stick, dip it into the solution, and wash the brush with it. Next pour over it some clean, hot water, and put it aside for a short time; then drain and wipe it with a cloth, and dry it before the fire. p. 314
Hair Brushes.-- To clean hair-brushes, put a spoon-ful of pearlash into a pint of boiling water, then fasten a bit of sponge to the end of a stick, dip it into the solution, and wash the brush. Next pour some hot water over it, and dry before the fire.-- "The Toilet" Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine (1854-1882); Jul 1855; 51, APS Online, pg. 79
To Prevent the Hair Falling Off.--Put one pound of unadulterated honey into a still, with three handfuls of the tendrils of grape-vine, and the same quantity of rosemary tops. Distill as cool and slowly as possible. The liquor may be allowed to drop till it tastes sour.--"Recipes for the Toilet." Graham's American Monthly Magazine of Literature, Art, and Fashion (1844-1858); Oct 1856, VOL.XLIX., No. 4., APS Online, pg 364.
Receipt for Preventing the Hair Falling Off.-- Onions must be rubbed frequently on the part. The stimulating powers of this vegetable are of essential service in restoring the tone of the skin, and assisting the capillary vessels in sending forth new hair; but it is not infallible. Should it succeed, however, the growth of these new hairs may be assisted by the oil of myrtle-berries, the repute of which, perhaps, is greater than its real efficiency. These applications are cheap and harmless, even where they do no good; a character cannot be said of the numerous quack remedies that meet the eye in every direction. --"Receipts for the Toilet" Peterson's Magazine (1849-1892); Jan 1861; VOL. XXXIX., No. 1, pg. 94
For Removing Scurf From the Head :-- Take two ounces of castor oil, six ounces of olive oil, and an ounce and a half of tincture of cantharides; mix it well, and add two drachms of essence of bergamot, to render it agreeable. Or-- Mix equal quantities of rum and oil, and use it like oil alone.- Peterson's 1860 p. 488
A Receipt for Scurf in the Head that will not Injure the Color of the Hair.-- The following is a most efficacious, safe, and agreeable receipt. I have tried it, and found it answer exceedingly well. Into a pint of water drop a lump of quicklime, the size of a walnut; let it stand all night; then pour the water off, clear off sediment, or deposit, add a quarter of a pint of the best vinegar, and wash the head, thoroughly wetting the roots of the hair.
Pomatum-- The following is the recipe of Dupuytren, the celebrated French physician, to prepare a pomatum to prevent baldness, and promote the growth of human hair. it is muc esteemed by the medical faculty, one of whom furnished it for the columns of the Southern Planter, the editor of which, since its receipt, has applied it with great success, to an inveterate ?etter on the head of a little boy in his own family: Take of Beef Marrow (well tried) 8 oz. Sugar of lead (well pulverized) 1 drachm Old Brandy 1 oz. Oil of Cloves 15 drops Tincture of Cantharides, (Spanish flies) 15 scrup. Mix intimately, and rub the bald part, or that likely to become so, every evening.- The American Farmer, and Spirit of the Agricultural Journals of the Day, 1839(Sep 29, 1841); 3,19; APS Online; pg. 149
Pomatum to Prevent Hair From Falling Off.-- Take the marrow out of two beef bones, put it into cold water, and let it remain until it is quite clean and white. Before this is effected the water must be changed several times. Dissolve and strain the marrow; then add four ounces of the best castor oil. Beat both well together until cold, then add, before the pomatum becomes firm, half an ounce of strong scent. This pomatum should be well rubbed into the skin of the head every night, and the hair should be well brushed both night and morning.--"The Toilet" Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine (1854-1882); May 1863; 66, APS Online, pg. 486.
Removing Superfluous Hair. The only method of effectually removing superfluous hair, is by means of small forceps made for the purpose. Only five or six should be removed at once, in the course of twenty-four hours, and those not close together. The parts should afterwards be washed in spirits of wine.--"Recipes for the Toilet." Graham's American Monthly Magazine of Literature, Art, and Fashion (1844-1858); Oct 1856, VOL.XLIX., No. 4., APS Online, pg 364.
Glossary and Instructions for Unusual Ingredients in 19th c. hair care receipts
Ingredients
civet : 2. A yellowish or brownish unctuous substance, having a strong musky smell, obtained from sacs or glands in the anal pouch of several animals of the Civet genus, especially of the African Civet-cat. It is used in perfumery. "civet, n.1"The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989. OED Online . Oxford University Press. 29 Aug 2007, .
isinglass 1. A firm whitish semitransparent substance (being a comparatively pure form of gelatin) obtained from the sounds or air-bladders of some fresh-water fishes, esp. the sturgeon; used in cookery for making jellies, etc., also for clarifying liquors, in the manufacture of glue, and for other purposes. Also extended to similar substances made from hides, hoofs, etc. "isinglass, n.1"The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989. OED Online . Oxford University Press. 29 Aug 2007, .
Oil of Ben : oil obtained from the ben-nut. "oil of ben, n.3"The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989. OED Online . Oxford University Press. 29 Aug 2007, .
Perfumed Oils.--These are prepared by soaking cotton in fine olive oil, and spreading it in layers, over which such flowers as violets, jessamine, or roses, should be lightly strewn. The oil will thus imbibe the scent of the flowers, and should be pressed from the cotton, and, if necessary, filtered through flannel. Most of the French scented oils are made by this process. -- "Recipes for the Toilet." Graham's American Monthly Magazine of Literature, Art, and Fashion (1844-1858); Oct 1856, VOL.XLIX., No. 4., APS Online, pg 364.
Rose Water.Put roses into water, and add one or two drops only of vitriolic acid. The water assumes the color, and becomes impregnated with the flowers.-- "Recipes for the Toilet." Graham's American Monthly Magazine of Literature, Art, and Fashion (1844-1858); Oct 1856, VOL.XLIX., No. 4., APS Online, pg 364.
Measurements
Drachm 2. A weight approximately equivalent to that of the Greek coin. Hence, in Apothecaries' weight = 60 grains, or of an ounce, in Avoirdupois weight = 27 grains or of an ounce. (Spelt drachm or dram.) Also, the Arabic DIRHEM. fluid drachm = of fluid ounce, = 60 minims or drops. "drachm, n. 2" The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989. OED Online. Oxford University Press. 29 Aug 2007, .
minim: b. The smallest unit of liquid capacity in apothecaries' measure, equal to a sixtieth of a fluid drachm (approx. 0.47 ml). The measure is roughly equivalent to one drop of liquid. "minim, n.1"The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989. OED Online . Oxford University Press. 29 Aug 2007, .
Scruple 1. A unit of weight = 20 grains, drachm, oz. Apothecaries' weight. "scruple, n.1"The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989. OED Online. Oxford University Press. 29 Aug 2007, .
From www.gothampatterns.com/hair.html
Names -- A List
Aaron
Abigail
Adan
Adelaide
Adelaide
Adora
Airon
Alby
Alema
Alfreda
Algodon (cotton in Spanish)
Almeda
Amato
Ambrosias
Amon
Amos
Amythest – Amy
Ancil
Andie
Antonelli
Anvil
Ardiss
Arianna
Armanico
Arnault
Arrington
Arville
Bahlie
Baidu
Bailar
Barringer
Bates
Becca
Berridge
Bertolini
Beryl
Betancourt (French)
Blackie
Blade
Blaise
Blossom
Bodie
Bolander
Boston Bob
Brady
Brady
Brodie
Burtis
Burton
Cadence “Cade”
Cadie
Cady
Cage
Cain
Callie
Calvin
Cameron “Cam”
Captain “Cap” or “Cappy”
Carole
Carrie
Carver
Casey
Catherine “Cate” or “Cake”
Catlett
Cean
Ceanne
Celces
Charlotte
Cherry
Chiefton
Chillerton
Chris Murphy
Claburn
Clancy
Clare
Clarence (Clare)
Clayborn
Clayburn
Clayton
Clem
Clotine
Cody
Coleena
Colorado Rose
Cooper
Cora
Corbin
Corbin
Corinne
Corinthia “Corrie”
Cory
Croix
Culver
Daehler
Daeler
Dahler
Dahlia
Dakota Rose
Darby
Dean
Deane
Deann
DeJean
Deliverance (Del)
Derby
Desiree
Destiny
Diamond – Di
Dora
Dorion
Dreama
Durango
Durbin
Effie
Eisenberg
Eldridge
Eli
Ella
Elleck
Ellie
Ellison
Emerald – Em
Emory (Em)
Erasmus
Erin
Eron
Estill
Falma
Fayelle
Finis
Foley
Foster
Francis
Gahle
Gallager
Gallie
Garnet
Gatewood
Gatty
Gayheart
Gaynell
Gedaliah
Gelacio
Gene
Geoffrey
Ghilley
Gillie
Gloria
Gonsalves
Goyal
Grayson
Hafeeth
Hahle
Halsey
Hannalee
Hardis
Hattie
Heiskel
Henry “Hank”
Hershell
Hester
Hildreth
Hovis
Hughes
Huldah
Irene Rene
Iris
Itle
Iva
Jagrity
Jarvis
Jasko
Jayla
Jaylee
Jean
Jewell
Johan
Jordan
Josiah
K. D.
K. T.
Kaden
Kadie
Kae
Kahle
Kane
Kasey
Kasha
Kasha
Katherine “Kate”
Kelly
Kerr
Kerry
Killarny Red
Kin Quon
Klein
Lady Addington
Lalony
Lana
Lance
Lasoda
Lavender
Leedy
Lester
Lily
Louella
Lynndal
Maci (Macy)
Madgel
Magda
Malissa
Malykhina
Manasseh
Marra
Marris
Marsh
Masada
Mason
Maude
Maya
Mayleen
Mayme
Mayme
McCorey
McDongall
McKee
McKenzie
Meirs
Merrill
Meyers
Micah
Midge
Minerva
Monnie
Morgan
Morton
Mr. Wright
Mulder
Mulver
Murphy
Nasha
Neville
Nicola
Norbert
Norbie
Norland
O’Reilley
Odis
Okie
Oney
Opal
Orel
Ortega
Ova
Ozette
Pansy
Pearl
Penelope
Phillip (Pip)Kilton
Port
Preston
Ptjar
Queen
Rahab
Ramadori
Raphah
Reah
Rebekkah
Reema
Rehm
Rena
Rhem
Ridge
Rigel
Rissa
Rivit
Roja (Spanish red)
Rollie
Rollin
Roncie
Rosslyn
Ruby
Rush
Sacha
Sana
Santiago
Sapphire
Sapphire
Sarvis
Sasha
Schaffer
Schmidt
Sean
Seeann
Sempra
Sever
Shawn
Shelby
Sheldon
Sherbrook
Shonnie
Sidney
Skyler
Snowden
Spicy
Stallard
Stinson
Swami
Talbert
Talley
Tallin
Talmadge
Tamar
Tamiel
Tasha
Temiar
Thandy
Theo
Theodore
Thorunn
Tobert
Tobie
Tobius
Topaz
Travis
Tyler
Ursel
Vada
Valisa
Vance
Vangie
Vaughn
Vega
Verna
Vicy
Vinny
Viola
Vita
Vitalos
Vladimir
Wahlen
Webster
Weeda
Weitzner
Whalen
Wilford
Willie Gene
Wong
Woodruff
Yancey
Yetta
York
Yukon Gold
Zada
Abigail
Adan
Adelaide
Adelaide
Adora
Airon
Alby
Alema
Alfreda
Algodon (cotton in Spanish)
Almeda
Amato
Ambrosias
Amon
Amos
Amythest – Amy
Ancil
Andie
Antonelli
Anvil
Ardiss
Arianna
Armanico
Arnault
Arrington
Arville
Bahlie
Baidu
Bailar
Barringer
Bates
Becca
Berridge
Bertolini
Beryl
Betancourt (French)
Blackie
Blade
Blaise
Blossom
Bodie
Bolander
Boston Bob
Brady
Brady
Brodie
Burtis
Burton
Cadence “Cade”
Cadie
Cady
Cage
Cain
Callie
Calvin
Cameron “Cam”
Captain “Cap” or “Cappy”
Carole
Carrie
Carver
Casey
Catherine “Cate” or “Cake”
Catlett
Cean
Ceanne
Celces
Charlotte
Cherry
Chiefton
Chillerton
Chris Murphy
Claburn
Clancy
Clare
Clarence (Clare)
Clayborn
Clayburn
Clayton
Clem
Clotine
Cody
Coleena
Colorado Rose
Cooper
Cora
Corbin
Corbin
Corinne
Corinthia “Corrie”
Cory
Croix
Culver
Daehler
Daeler
Dahler
Dahlia
Dakota Rose
Darby
Dean
Deane
Deann
DeJean
Deliverance (Del)
Derby
Desiree
Destiny
Diamond – Di
Dora
Dorion
Dreama
Durango
Durbin
Effie
Eisenberg
Eldridge
Eli
Ella
Elleck
Ellie
Ellison
Emerald – Em
Emory (Em)
Erasmus
Erin
Eron
Estill
Falma
Fayelle
Finis
Foley
Foster
Francis
Gahle
Gallager
Gallie
Garnet
Gatewood
Gatty
Gayheart
Gaynell
Gedaliah
Gelacio
Gene
Geoffrey
Ghilley
Gillie
Gloria
Gonsalves
Goyal
Grayson
Hafeeth
Hahle
Halsey
Hannalee
Hardis
Hattie
Heiskel
Henry “Hank”
Hershell
Hester
Hildreth
Hovis
Hughes
Huldah
Irene Rene
Iris
Itle
Iva
Jagrity
Jarvis
Jasko
Jayla
Jaylee
Jean
Jewell
Johan
Jordan
Josiah
K. D.
K. T.
Kaden
Kadie
Kae
Kahle
Kane
Kasey
Kasha
Kasha
Katherine “Kate”
Kelly
Kerr
Kerry
Killarny Red
Kin Quon
Klein
Lady Addington
Lalony
Lana
Lance
Lasoda
Lavender
Leedy
Lester
Lily
Louella
Lynndal
Maci (Macy)
Madgel
Magda
Malissa
Malykhina
Manasseh
Marra
Marris
Marsh
Masada
Mason
Maude
Maya
Mayleen
Mayme
Mayme
McCorey
McDongall
McKee
McKenzie
Meirs
Merrill
Meyers
Micah
Midge
Minerva
Monnie
Morgan
Morton
Mr. Wright
Mulder
Mulver
Murphy
Nasha
Neville
Nicola
Norbert
Norbie
Norland
O’Reilley
Odis
Okie
Oney
Opal
Orel
Ortega
Ova
Ozette
Pansy
Pearl
Penelope
Phillip (Pip)Kilton
Port
Preston
Ptjar
Queen
Rahab
Ramadori
Raphah
Reah
Rebekkah
Reema
Rehm
Rena
Rhem
Ridge
Rigel
Rissa
Rivit
Roja (Spanish red)
Rollie
Rollin
Roncie
Rosslyn
Ruby
Rush
Sacha
Sana
Santiago
Sapphire
Sapphire
Sarvis
Sasha
Schaffer
Schmidt
Sean
Seeann
Sempra
Sever
Shawn
Shelby
Sheldon
Sherbrook
Shonnie
Sidney
Skyler
Snowden
Spicy
Stallard
Stinson
Swami
Talbert
Talley
Tallin
Talmadge
Tamar
Tamiel
Tasha
Temiar
Thandy
Theo
Theodore
Thorunn
Tobert
Tobie
Tobius
Topaz
Travis
Tyler
Ursel
Vada
Valisa
Vance
Vangie
Vaughn
Vega
Verna
Vicy
Vinny
Viola
Vita
Vitalos
Vladimir
Wahlen
Webster
Weeda
Weitzner
Whalen
Wilford
Willie Gene
Wong
Woodruff
Yancey
Yetta
York
Yukon Gold
Zada
Crime Scene Procedures
The discoveries, inventions, and theories of our forensic science fore bearers have all culminated into what we know today as the criminal investigation. Often, that investigation begins upon discovery of a crime scene. The information on criminal investigations, and crime scene procedure, is covered in scores of books. A basic overview of crime scene procedures is covered below.
First Responder Priorities:
1. Determine need for medical assistance
2. Confirm or pronounce death
Conduct a scene walk through
Take steps to preserve and protect area
Secure and isolate the crime scene using ropes or barricades
Exclude all unauthorized personnel from scene
Determine the lead investigator
Physical evidence can be rendered useless by people wandering through the area. Every single person has the potential to destroy valuable evidence. It's the responsibility of the officer to prohibit access to anyone not directly involved with processing the site (including fellow officers).
Evaluation of the Area
Determine the boundaries of the scene
Establish the perpetrator’s entrance and exit
Initial walk though of the scene to determine the strategy for documentation of the entire crime scene.
DOCUMENTING THE SCENE
Photography/Video
Overall Photos
Photographs must be in unaltered condition.
Overview photographs are taken of the entire scene and surrounding areas, including walls and points of entry and exit.
The purpose is to include as much as possible in one photograph.
The goal is to ensure that each important item is in at least one photo.
Should be taken before anything is disturbed
Photographs of physical evidence: should show the position and location relevant to the scene.
Photographs of the body: should show the body's position relative to the scene.
2. Mid Range Photographs
The purpose is to focus attention on a specific object.
Scales should be used when indicated. Without a scale, many photos can't be admitted in court.
Photos of wounds and bruises should be photographed with and without scales.
3. Close up Photographs
The purpose is show a specific aspect of an object up close.
Photos can show pattern of injuries
Photos showing injuries or weapons lying near the body are necessary.
After the body is removed, close up photos should be taken of the area underneath.
Digital/Video Photography
Same principles used in regular photography apply.
Overview shots as well as close ups should be taken.
SKETCHING THE SCENE
Rough Sketches:
Shows all recovered items of physical evidence
Objects are located by distance measurements from two fixed points.
Distances marked must be accurate. All distances are made with a tape measure.
Each item is assigned a letter or number.
The sketch shows a compass heading designating north.
Finished Sketches
Usually prepared with the aide of templates
Usually drawn to scale
Must contain information contained in the rough sketch
NOTES
Required in court
Includes a detailed written description of the scene
Identifies the time an item was discovered, by whom, how and by whom it was packaged, and the disposition of the item.
Notes are used to refresh memories, sometimes years later.
SEARCHING THE SCENE
Conducting the search for evidence is the responsibility of the lead investigator. A thorough search is imperative and no important evidence should be overlooked. Failure to collect all pertinent evidence may lead to charges of negligence or tampering.
Types of Searches
Zone Search: A small area or room is searched. It's used in homicides, rape, drug and bomb searches.
Ever Widening Circle: The searcher starts in the middle of the ring and continues in an ever widening circle until the whole area is searched. This is used when only one person is available to search.
Straight Line Search: Used outdoors for body dump search and after mass disasters. A large number of people will stand, shoulder to shoulder, and walk across the area in a straight line.
Strip Search: Used for when only a small number of people are available to cover a large outdoor area. With this search, the searchers will walk straight and then turn at right angles across the area to be covered. Down, across, up, across, down, across, up....
Grid Search: This type covers a large area. The area is divided into a grid and a search is made of each grid. A second search will then be made perpendicular to the first search.
INDOOR SEARCHES
The search will start at the immediate area at and around the body and move outward. All areas, including ceilings, windows, doors, and floors must be examined for evidence. Any item which may carry trace evidence must be collected. Some examples of areas and things to be searched for are listed below:
The victim
Book cases
Furniture
Stoves
Doors
Windows
Papers, magazines, and mail
Ashtrays
Lighting
Kitchen - Check for place settings at table, number of place settings, food present and condition of food.
Heating Conditions - check type; vented or unvented; thermostat setting.
Wastebaskets and trash cans
Bathrooms
Clocks and watches
Stairs, passages, entry and exit
Check for tool marks
Check for signs of ransacking and general disorder
Check for signs of a fight
Check odor of rooms
Check for blood, hair, signs of body fluids, fingerprints, footprints, etc.
Check for hiding places for weapons behind stoves and bookcases, under beds, up on high furniture, under the mattress, etc.
OUTDOOR SEARCHES
A large area will be searched, using personnel with metal detectors and sifters. The search will usually be completed using the straight line, strip or grid method. Some of the things the searchers will be looking for are: fingerprints, footprints, tire tracks or prints, bloodstains, scratches, paint flakes, hair, fibers, etc. Soil samples are also taken in order to compare traces of mud or soil on the suspect's clothing later. In some cases, collecting samples of the surrounding vegetation and insects can also prove useful.
If a vehicle is suspected in the commission of a crime, a meticulous search is done all over the vehicle, including the carriage underneath. Officers will be looking for dents, scratches, scrapes, paint, hairs, fibers, bits of glass, pieces of clothing, etc. A special vacuum cleaner is used to catch minute traces of evidence. In vehicles, soil accumulates under fenders and bodywork. When two vehicles collide, the soil or mud may be dislodged. By doing a soil comparison, it can later be determined if a particular vehicle was present at the crime scene.
COLLECTION OF EVIDENCE
The collection of physical evidence is vital to any crime scene search. The goal of collection is to maintain the integrity of the evidence. Physical evidence can be anything from huge items to minute traces of blood, dust, and fibers which can only be examined in the crime laboratory. Physical evidence must be handled in an exact manner thus preventing any contamination of the evidence. Blood evidence, for example, cannot be packaged wet or it will grow mold. The handlers need to try to prevent any change from taking place from the time the evidence is collected at the scene until it reaches the laboratory.
EXAMPLES OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE
Blood, semen, saliva, sweat
Hair
Fibers
Documents
Fingerprints
Glass
Paint
Powder residues
Plastic and rubber items
Tool marks
Wood and metal objects
Impressions
PACKAGING OF EVIDENCE
Correct packaging techniques are vital to maintaining the integrity of the evidence. If the evidence is allowed to become contaminated, damaged or evaporated through mishandling, it becomes worthless. A primary rule of packaging evidence is that, whenever possible, the items should be sent to the crime lab intact. Rather than remove evidence from the object, it's preferable that the entire object be sent to the laboratory. If evidence must be removed, forceps or swabs can be utilized. If a swab is used, the swab must be air dried before packaging.
Folded papers, labeled envelopes and paper bags are often supplied and are useful for packaging evidence such as hair, blood and other body fluids, and debris. Ordinary manila envelopes should not be used, since tiny particles can leak out. Each distinct item must be packaged in separate paper bags to avoid cross contamination.
Wet evidence, such as blood, semen, and saliva, must be air dried first. Any wet evidence can grow mold which can cause the evidence to deteriorate. Once dried, the evidence can be sealed in an envelope, then packaged in a paper bag, sealed and marked accordingly. All items of clothing must be air dried then placed in separate paper bags. Other containers which can be used include: screw top glass vials, plastic pill bottles, cardboard boxes, and metal paint cans. Some examples are given below:
Arson Material - metal paint can
Blood, Semen, and Saliva (dried) - paper bags
Blood (liquid) - glass vial
Clothing - paper bag
Fingernail Scrapings - envelope, then paper bag
Bullets - cardboard box
Fibers - envelope, then paper bag
Drugs - plastic bag
Paint - metal box
Soil - paper bag
CHAIN OF CUSTODY
A continuous chain of custody must be maintained in order for evidenceto be accepted in court. Standards require that every person who handles the evidence must be accounted for. A log is created, for every piece of evidence, from the beginning of the crime scene investigation until the evidence is released to the crime laboratory. This includes the name, date, description, and location of the item, as well as the handler's name and title.
Once in the laboratory, the forensic examiner's signature, the incoming and examination dates, the times, and the department are also logged in. In order to avoid confusion or questionable handling, the evidence should be handled as minimally as possible.
DISBURSEMENT OF THE BODY
The following Death Investigation Guidelines, from the Department of Justice, are used for disbursement of the remains:
Maintain integrity of evidence on the body
Ensure the body is protected from further trauma or contamination.
Wrap hands and feet in paper bags
Establish victim's identification
Participate in scene debriefing
Notification of appropriate agencies
Notification of next of kin *
Inventory and secure property, clothing, and personal effects that are on the body. Remove in a controlled environment with a witness present.
Blood and/or vitreous samples are recovered prior to release of remains.
Ensure the labeling, packaging, and removal of the remains.
Secure transportation of the remains.
First Responder Priorities:
1. Determine need for medical assistance
2. Confirm or pronounce death
Conduct a scene walk through
Take steps to preserve and protect area
Secure and isolate the crime scene using ropes or barricades
Exclude all unauthorized personnel from scene
Determine the lead investigator
Physical evidence can be rendered useless by people wandering through the area. Every single person has the potential to destroy valuable evidence. It's the responsibility of the officer to prohibit access to anyone not directly involved with processing the site (including fellow officers).
Evaluation of the Area
Determine the boundaries of the scene
Establish the perpetrator’s entrance and exit
Initial walk though of the scene to determine the strategy for documentation of the entire crime scene.
DOCUMENTING THE SCENE
Photography/Video
Overall Photos
Photographs must be in unaltered condition.
Overview photographs are taken of the entire scene and surrounding areas, including walls and points of entry and exit.
The purpose is to include as much as possible in one photograph.
The goal is to ensure that each important item is in at least one photo.
Should be taken before anything is disturbed
Photographs of physical evidence: should show the position and location relevant to the scene.
Photographs of the body: should show the body's position relative to the scene.
2. Mid Range Photographs
The purpose is to focus attention on a specific object.
Scales should be used when indicated. Without a scale, many photos can't be admitted in court.
Photos of wounds and bruises should be photographed with and without scales.
3. Close up Photographs
The purpose is show a specific aspect of an object up close.
Photos can show pattern of injuries
Photos showing injuries or weapons lying near the body are necessary.
After the body is removed, close up photos should be taken of the area underneath.
Digital/Video Photography
Same principles used in regular photography apply.
Overview shots as well as close ups should be taken.
SKETCHING THE SCENE
Rough Sketches:
Shows all recovered items of physical evidence
Objects are located by distance measurements from two fixed points.
Distances marked must be accurate. All distances are made with a tape measure.
Each item is assigned a letter or number.
The sketch shows a compass heading designating north.
Finished Sketches
Usually prepared with the aide of templates
Usually drawn to scale
Must contain information contained in the rough sketch
NOTES
Required in court
Includes a detailed written description of the scene
Identifies the time an item was discovered, by whom, how and by whom it was packaged, and the disposition of the item.
Notes are used to refresh memories, sometimes years later.
SEARCHING THE SCENE
Conducting the search for evidence is the responsibility of the lead investigator. A thorough search is imperative and no important evidence should be overlooked. Failure to collect all pertinent evidence may lead to charges of negligence or tampering.
Types of Searches
Zone Search: A small area or room is searched. It's used in homicides, rape, drug and bomb searches.
Ever Widening Circle: The searcher starts in the middle of the ring and continues in an ever widening circle until the whole area is searched. This is used when only one person is available to search.
Straight Line Search: Used outdoors for body dump search and after mass disasters. A large number of people will stand, shoulder to shoulder, and walk across the area in a straight line.
Strip Search: Used for when only a small number of people are available to cover a large outdoor area. With this search, the searchers will walk straight and then turn at right angles across the area to be covered. Down, across, up, across, down, across, up....
Grid Search: This type covers a large area. The area is divided into a grid and a search is made of each grid. A second search will then be made perpendicular to the first search.
INDOOR SEARCHES
The search will start at the immediate area at and around the body and move outward. All areas, including ceilings, windows, doors, and floors must be examined for evidence. Any item which may carry trace evidence must be collected. Some examples of areas and things to be searched for are listed below:
The victim
Book cases
Furniture
Stoves
Doors
Windows
Papers, magazines, and mail
Ashtrays
Lighting
Kitchen - Check for place settings at table, number of place settings, food present and condition of food.
Heating Conditions - check type; vented or unvented; thermostat setting.
Wastebaskets and trash cans
Bathrooms
Clocks and watches
Stairs, passages, entry and exit
Check for tool marks
Check for signs of ransacking and general disorder
Check for signs of a fight
Check odor of rooms
Check for blood, hair, signs of body fluids, fingerprints, footprints, etc.
Check for hiding places for weapons behind stoves and bookcases, under beds, up on high furniture, under the mattress, etc.
OUTDOOR SEARCHES
A large area will be searched, using personnel with metal detectors and sifters. The search will usually be completed using the straight line, strip or grid method. Some of the things the searchers will be looking for are: fingerprints, footprints, tire tracks or prints, bloodstains, scratches, paint flakes, hair, fibers, etc. Soil samples are also taken in order to compare traces of mud or soil on the suspect's clothing later. In some cases, collecting samples of the surrounding vegetation and insects can also prove useful.
If a vehicle is suspected in the commission of a crime, a meticulous search is done all over the vehicle, including the carriage underneath. Officers will be looking for dents, scratches, scrapes, paint, hairs, fibers, bits of glass, pieces of clothing, etc. A special vacuum cleaner is used to catch minute traces of evidence. In vehicles, soil accumulates under fenders and bodywork. When two vehicles collide, the soil or mud may be dislodged. By doing a soil comparison, it can later be determined if a particular vehicle was present at the crime scene.
COLLECTION OF EVIDENCE
The collection of physical evidence is vital to any crime scene search. The goal of collection is to maintain the integrity of the evidence. Physical evidence can be anything from huge items to minute traces of blood, dust, and fibers which can only be examined in the crime laboratory. Physical evidence must be handled in an exact manner thus preventing any contamination of the evidence. Blood evidence, for example, cannot be packaged wet or it will grow mold. The handlers need to try to prevent any change from taking place from the time the evidence is collected at the scene until it reaches the laboratory.
EXAMPLES OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE
Blood, semen, saliva, sweat
Hair
Fibers
Documents
Fingerprints
Glass
Paint
Powder residues
Plastic and rubber items
Tool marks
Wood and metal objects
Impressions
PACKAGING OF EVIDENCE
Correct packaging techniques are vital to maintaining the integrity of the evidence. If the evidence is allowed to become contaminated, damaged or evaporated through mishandling, it becomes worthless. A primary rule of packaging evidence is that, whenever possible, the items should be sent to the crime lab intact. Rather than remove evidence from the object, it's preferable that the entire object be sent to the laboratory. If evidence must be removed, forceps or swabs can be utilized. If a swab is used, the swab must be air dried before packaging.
Folded papers, labeled envelopes and paper bags are often supplied and are useful for packaging evidence such as hair, blood and other body fluids, and debris. Ordinary manila envelopes should not be used, since tiny particles can leak out. Each distinct item must be packaged in separate paper bags to avoid cross contamination.
Wet evidence, such as blood, semen, and saliva, must be air dried first. Any wet evidence can grow mold which can cause the evidence to deteriorate. Once dried, the evidence can be sealed in an envelope, then packaged in a paper bag, sealed and marked accordingly. All items of clothing must be air dried then placed in separate paper bags. Other containers which can be used include: screw top glass vials, plastic pill bottles, cardboard boxes, and metal paint cans. Some examples are given below:
Arson Material - metal paint can
Blood, Semen, and Saliva (dried) - paper bags
Blood (liquid) - glass vial
Clothing - paper bag
Fingernail Scrapings - envelope, then paper bag
Bullets - cardboard box
Fibers - envelope, then paper bag
Drugs - plastic bag
Paint - metal box
Soil - paper bag
CHAIN OF CUSTODY
A continuous chain of custody must be maintained in order for evidenceto be accepted in court. Standards require that every person who handles the evidence must be accounted for. A log is created, for every piece of evidence, from the beginning of the crime scene investigation until the evidence is released to the crime laboratory. This includes the name, date, description, and location of the item, as well as the handler's name and title.
Once in the laboratory, the forensic examiner's signature, the incoming and examination dates, the times, and the department are also logged in. In order to avoid confusion or questionable handling, the evidence should be handled as minimally as possible.
DISBURSEMENT OF THE BODY
The following Death Investigation Guidelines, from the Department of Justice, are used for disbursement of the remains:
Maintain integrity of evidence on the body
Ensure the body is protected from further trauma or contamination.
Wrap hands and feet in paper bags
Establish victim's identification
Participate in scene debriefing
Notification of appropriate agencies
Notification of next of kin *
Inventory and secure property, clothing, and personal effects that are on the body. Remove in a controlled environment with a witness present.
Blood and/or vitreous samples are recovered prior to release of remains.
Ensure the labeling, packaging, and removal of the remains.
Secure transportation of the remains.
Common Characteristics in Individuals with Learning Disabilities
Reading and spelling problems.
Weak oral language including:
Inability to tell a joke
Inability to understand cause and effect.
Unable to respond to explanations given in language i.e., they learn better when shown.
Weak reading comprehension - inability to recall what they have read
Need to re-ask questions that have already been answered
Unable to grasp the main idea or inferences from TV shows although they may get a few details
Inability to abstract - missing the point and taking information literally
Weak expressive language including: inability to express themselves; lack the ability to gesture; may be verbal but their verbalisations are scattered and difficult to follow (ramble on without getting to the point)
Weak writing skills - poor organisation, unfocused, sees only parts and not the whole
Messy handwriting/avoidance of written tasks
Delayed speech or language
Poor organisational skills in daily living
Loses attention quickly in conversations or lectures
Poor concentration - easily distracted or fatigued
Impulsivity
Weak auditory memory and poor at following directions
Difficulty remembering multiplication tables or other rote memory tasks
Difficulties with mental arithmetic
Poor self-esteem/lack of confidence
Depression/mood changes
Weak sense of time - immediate and historic
Weak sense of direction
Confusion with right and left
Poor at judging size and distance
Behavioural problems - acting out/withdrawing
Poor sequencing ability - difficulty ordering information, not knowing where to start solving a problem and/or not knowing where, when or how to ask for help
Confusion when presented with multiple pieces of information
Misinterprets actions or intentions of others
Slow in processing information - slow reaction time, takes a long time reading, writing, talking, thinking
Lack of changes in facial expression - does not show emotion
Perseverates - repetitive, resists changes in routines
Poor coordination - gross and fine motor
Poor peer relationships - difficulty relating in interpersonal relationships; has few friends; often in fights
Difficulty making decisions
All individuals exhibit some of these behaviours at some stage. The presence of one or two may not be significant, but a cluster of these behaviours requires further assessment.
Weak oral language including:
Inability to tell a joke
Inability to understand cause and effect.
Unable to respond to explanations given in language i.e., they learn better when shown.
Weak reading comprehension - inability to recall what they have read
Need to re-ask questions that have already been answered
Unable to grasp the main idea or inferences from TV shows although they may get a few details
Inability to abstract - missing the point and taking information literally
Weak expressive language including: inability to express themselves; lack the ability to gesture; may be verbal but their verbalisations are scattered and difficult to follow (ramble on without getting to the point)
Weak writing skills - poor organisation, unfocused, sees only parts and not the whole
Messy handwriting/avoidance of written tasks
Delayed speech or language
Poor organisational skills in daily living
Loses attention quickly in conversations or lectures
Poor concentration - easily distracted or fatigued
Impulsivity
Weak auditory memory and poor at following directions
Difficulty remembering multiplication tables or other rote memory tasks
Difficulties with mental arithmetic
Poor self-esteem/lack of confidence
Depression/mood changes
Weak sense of time - immediate and historic
Weak sense of direction
Confusion with right and left
Poor at judging size and distance
Behavioural problems - acting out/withdrawing
Poor sequencing ability - difficulty ordering information, not knowing where to start solving a problem and/or not knowing where, when or how to ask for help
Confusion when presented with multiple pieces of information
Misinterprets actions or intentions of others
Slow in processing information - slow reaction time, takes a long time reading, writing, talking, thinking
Lack of changes in facial expression - does not show emotion
Perseverates - repetitive, resists changes in routines
Poor coordination - gross and fine motor
Poor peer relationships - difficulty relating in interpersonal relationships; has few friends; often in fights
Difficulty making decisions
All individuals exhibit some of these behaviours at some stage. The presence of one or two may not be significant, but a cluster of these behaviours requires further assessment.
The psychopath
Individuals with this personality disorder are fully aware of the consequences of their actions and know the difference between right and wrong, yet they are terrifyingly self-centered, remorseless, and unable to care about the feelings of others. Perhaps most frightening, they often seem completely normal to unsuspecting targets and they do not always ply their trade by killing.
. . . con artists, hustlers, rapists, and other predators who charm, lie, and manipulate their way through life.
http://student-guide-to-forensic-psychology.blogspot.com/2007_06_01_archive.html
Most people, fed by the Hollywood idea, imagine the psychopathic individual to be very flamboyant, a highly intelligent sort of Hannibal Lecter. But that isn't the type of individual you're seeing. . . . a callous disregard for others, and a cold, bewildering cleverness. They also reveal a calculating desire to harm. They're serial killers. . . . the mind of the remorseless . . . classic, antisocial behaviour that you think of when you think of psychopathy - doing consistent harmful acts to other individuals - and also some pronounced emotional problems, so they don't feel guilt. It's very common amongst normal murderers to feel very guilty about the people they've actually hurt, after the offence. Psychopathic individuals: you just don't care.
Dr James Blair is a neuropsychologist at University College, London, says “Most psychopaths wouldn't be serial killers. They're certainly not motivated to go out and kill. They may kill somebody because that person gets in the way, but there's no desire to go and hurt another human being.”
There's nothing about psychopathy that's linked with intelligence. Impairment of emotion, yes.
Stuart Kinner is a forensic psychologist and researcher at the University of Queensland. Probably the pin-up boy for psychopathic people is Ted Bundy in some respects. He's clearly a very charming guy, clearly a very remorseless guy, and clearly a very manipulative guy. He also was a serial killer, which is another thing altogether. lack of emotion, that coldness, that callousness. What you often find with psychopaths is that after a few meetings, you start to realise that they're not all they seem to be. Underneath their veneer of charm, underneath their veneer of knowledge, they're often a very uninformed, very insincere person. Quite often, the people who I guess would be psychopathic, they do (to put it simply) give you the creeps a little bit when you meet them. They're often the same people who try to be very charming, who try to tell you a story, and they'll fixate their eyes on you while they tell you this story, because all the while they're just checking, have they managed to convince you, have they managed to manipulate you. . . . But as regards whether it's a fundamental problem caused by a specific set of genetic information, or whether it was caused by a particular environmental trauma, at a specific age; that question at the moment we just have no answer for.
There's a lot of research in the last 5 to 10 years, showing that psychopaths have a much more coercive much more aggressive sexual strategy, and they're also much more promiscuous and start having sex earlier in life. . . . if they're passing on their genes, then it could follow that they're increasing the percentage of psychopaths in the general population . . . When you think about it, it's very hard for a psychopath to con another psychopath. A psychopath won't trust someone else, so we have to have a lot more victims than psychopaths out there, for them to be successful. This is why they tend to be relatively nomadic, why they tend to move from city to city and from community to community.
Being a psychopath works if you're a man. You can move from community to community, you can spread your genes widely by mating with a whole variety of people, and moving on. Unfortunately, the woman is left to look after the child, and that does tend to happen quite a lot. The same traits that lead to psychopathic personality behaviour in men may be present in women, but quite often they manifest differently, and women are less likely to be predatory, they're more likely to be self-harming than harming others, in fact, with similar traits.
. . . Psychopaths . . . don't respond to fear or sadness, and they don't experience guilt or remorse. Teaching people to think more about other people's emotions, teaching them about empathy, teaching them to think about other people, is actually just increasing their ability to manipulate and con others. . . . our culture, especially youth culture, is desensitised and emotionally detached and exploitative and sensation-seeking. . . . parasitic lifestyle, for example, which is one of the diagnostic criteria for psychopathy. But you know, the charming, superficial interpersonal style, the lack of remorse and guilt, and shallow affect . . . is being encouraged in today’s society.
From http://www.abc.net.au/rn/allinthemind/stories/2002/511461.htm
. . . con artists, hustlers, rapists, and other predators who charm, lie, and manipulate their way through life.
http://student-guide-to-forensic-psychology.blogspot.com/2007_06_01_archive.html
Most people, fed by the Hollywood idea, imagine the psychopathic individual to be very flamboyant, a highly intelligent sort of Hannibal Lecter. But that isn't the type of individual you're seeing. . . . a callous disregard for others, and a cold, bewildering cleverness. They also reveal a calculating desire to harm. They're serial killers. . . . the mind of the remorseless . . . classic, antisocial behaviour that you think of when you think of psychopathy - doing consistent harmful acts to other individuals - and also some pronounced emotional problems, so they don't feel guilt. It's very common amongst normal murderers to feel very guilty about the people they've actually hurt, after the offence. Psychopathic individuals: you just don't care.
Dr James Blair is a neuropsychologist at University College, London, says “Most psychopaths wouldn't be serial killers. They're certainly not motivated to go out and kill. They may kill somebody because that person gets in the way, but there's no desire to go and hurt another human being.”
There's nothing about psychopathy that's linked with intelligence. Impairment of emotion, yes.
Stuart Kinner is a forensic psychologist and researcher at the University of Queensland. Probably the pin-up boy for psychopathic people is Ted Bundy in some respects. He's clearly a very charming guy, clearly a very remorseless guy, and clearly a very manipulative guy. He also was a serial killer, which is another thing altogether. lack of emotion, that coldness, that callousness. What you often find with psychopaths is that after a few meetings, you start to realise that they're not all they seem to be. Underneath their veneer of charm, underneath their veneer of knowledge, they're often a very uninformed, very insincere person. Quite often, the people who I guess would be psychopathic, they do (to put it simply) give you the creeps a little bit when you meet them. They're often the same people who try to be very charming, who try to tell you a story, and they'll fixate their eyes on you while they tell you this story, because all the while they're just checking, have they managed to convince you, have they managed to manipulate you. . . . But as regards whether it's a fundamental problem caused by a specific set of genetic information, or whether it was caused by a particular environmental trauma, at a specific age; that question at the moment we just have no answer for.
There's a lot of research in the last 5 to 10 years, showing that psychopaths have a much more coercive much more aggressive sexual strategy, and they're also much more promiscuous and start having sex earlier in life. . . . if they're passing on their genes, then it could follow that they're increasing the percentage of psychopaths in the general population . . . When you think about it, it's very hard for a psychopath to con another psychopath. A psychopath won't trust someone else, so we have to have a lot more victims than psychopaths out there, for them to be successful. This is why they tend to be relatively nomadic, why they tend to move from city to city and from community to community.
Being a psychopath works if you're a man. You can move from community to community, you can spread your genes widely by mating with a whole variety of people, and moving on. Unfortunately, the woman is left to look after the child, and that does tend to happen quite a lot. The same traits that lead to psychopathic personality behaviour in men may be present in women, but quite often they manifest differently, and women are less likely to be predatory, they're more likely to be self-harming than harming others, in fact, with similar traits.
. . . Psychopaths . . . don't respond to fear or sadness, and they don't experience guilt or remorse. Teaching people to think more about other people's emotions, teaching them about empathy, teaching them to think about other people, is actually just increasing their ability to manipulate and con others. . . . our culture, especially youth culture, is desensitised and emotionally detached and exploitative and sensation-seeking. . . . parasitic lifestyle, for example, which is one of the diagnostic criteria for psychopathy. But you know, the charming, superficial interpersonal style, the lack of remorse and guilt, and shallow affect . . . is being encouraged in today’s society.
From http://www.abc.net.au/rn/allinthemind/stories/2002/511461.htm
1886 Oranges
February 14, 1886
First trainload of oranges leaves Los Angeles
Destined to become one of the state's major exports, the first trainload of oranges grown by southern California farmers leaves Los Angeles via the transcontinental railroad.
The Spanish had established Los Angeles, one of the oldest cities in the Far West, in 1781 to help colonize the region. For several decades, the city was the largest center of population in Mexican California. Mexican settlement and development of California, however, proceeded very slowly, and Los Angeles developed little real economic or political power during this period. By the time the U.S. took control of California in 1848, Los Angeles still only had just over 1,610 inhabitants.
As Anglo-Americans began to assert their control over California, they gradually broke up the large Hispanic ranches and replaced them with a more diversified farming economy. With irrigation, southern California proved an ideal environment for growing many crops, particularly valuable fruits like oranges. During the 1870s and 1880s, state railroad lines linking Los Angeles into the new system of transcontinental railways created additional moneymaking opportunities. Settlers, tourists, and health seekers all boarded trains to travel to the Pacific, where the sunny climate and beautiful scenery promised a new and better life.
The healthful new California lifestyle became closely associated in the public mind with the sweet fruits that grew so abundantly in the orchards around Los Angeles. Taking advantage of the rapid transportation capabilities of the transcontinental lines, Los Angeles area orchard owners began shipping their oranges to the East in 1886. As the city grew, it subdivided many nearby orchards and pushed the orange growers out into regions like Orange County. There the orange growers steadily increased the size of their orchards to the point where local supplies of water for irrigation were inadequate. Determined to sustain their agricultural and real estate booms, Los Angeles residents undertook a massive program of hydraulic engineering in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Engineers took water from the distant mountains to transform the arid southern California ecosystem into a green agricultural and residential paradise.
The resulting growth was astonishing. In 1880, just before the first trainload of oranges departed, Los Angeles had 11,183 inhabitants. A decade later, the population had ballooned to 102,479. By 1920, there would be more than half a million residents. Los Angeles was already well on its way to becoming the largest urban center in the American West.
First trainload of oranges leaves Los Angeles
Destined to become one of the state's major exports, the first trainload of oranges grown by southern California farmers leaves Los Angeles via the transcontinental railroad.
The Spanish had established Los Angeles, one of the oldest cities in the Far West, in 1781 to help colonize the region. For several decades, the city was the largest center of population in Mexican California. Mexican settlement and development of California, however, proceeded very slowly, and Los Angeles developed little real economic or political power during this period. By the time the U.S. took control of California in 1848, Los Angeles still only had just over 1,610 inhabitants.
As Anglo-Americans began to assert their control over California, they gradually broke up the large Hispanic ranches and replaced them with a more diversified farming economy. With irrigation, southern California proved an ideal environment for growing many crops, particularly valuable fruits like oranges. During the 1870s and 1880s, state railroad lines linking Los Angeles into the new system of transcontinental railways created additional moneymaking opportunities. Settlers, tourists, and health seekers all boarded trains to travel to the Pacific, where the sunny climate and beautiful scenery promised a new and better life.
The healthful new California lifestyle became closely associated in the public mind with the sweet fruits that grew so abundantly in the orchards around Los Angeles. Taking advantage of the rapid transportation capabilities of the transcontinental lines, Los Angeles area orchard owners began shipping their oranges to the East in 1886. As the city grew, it subdivided many nearby orchards and pushed the orange growers out into regions like Orange County. There the orange growers steadily increased the size of their orchards to the point where local supplies of water for irrigation were inadequate. Determined to sustain their agricultural and real estate booms, Los Angeles residents undertook a massive program of hydraulic engineering in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Engineers took water from the distant mountains to transform the arid southern California ecosystem into a green agricultural and residential paradise.
The resulting growth was astonishing. In 1880, just before the first trainload of oranges departed, Los Angeles had 11,183 inhabitants. A decade later, the population had ballooned to 102,479. By 1920, there would be more than half a million residents. Los Angeles was already well on its way to becoming the largest urban center in the American West.
Teddy's Heartbreak
February 14, 1884
Theodore Roosevelt’s wife and mother die
On this day in 1884, future President Theodore Roosevelt’s wife and mother die, only hours apart.
Roosevelt was at work in the New York state legislature attempting to get a government reform bill passed when he was summoned home by his family. He returned home to find his mother, Mittie, had succumbed to typhoid fever. On the same day, his wife of four years, Alice Lee, died of Bright’s disease, a severe kidney ailment. Only two days before her death, Alice Lee had given birth to the couple’s daughter, Alice.
The double tragedy devastated Roosevelt. He ordered those around him not to mention his wife’s name. Burdened by grief, he abandoned politics, left the infant Alice with his sister Bamie, and, at the end of 1884, struck out for the Dakota territories, where he lived as a rancher and worked as a sheriff for two years. When not engrossed in raising cattle or acting as the local lawman, Roosevelt found time to indulge his passion for reading and writing history. After a blizzard wiped out his prized herd of cattle in 1885, Roosevelt decided to return to eastern society. Once back in New York in 1886, he again took up politics and took over raising his precocious daughter, Alice, who later became a national celebrity.
After stints in the Spanish-American War and as governor of New York, Roosevelt won a spot as William McKinley’s vice-presidential running mate in 1896. When McKinley died at the begnning of his second term in 1901, Roosevelt moved into the White House, where he and his family would spend the next eight years.
Alice grew to admire and respect her father yet, according to her memoirs and friends, she harbored resentment toward him for having abandoned her as a baby. Not long after he married his second wife, Edith, in 1886, Alice found herself competing not only with her father’s political cronies and new wife for his attention, but also with her five half-siblings who arrived in quick succession. The high-spirited Alice perhaps took to scandalous behaviour in retaliation.
The Roosevelt era coincided with a repressive time in women’s history, but the outspoken and independent Alice flouted acceptable behavior and revelled in the spotlight as first daughter. Alice’s activities as a young adult, such as smoking and staying out late with boys, irked her father, who nevertheless indulged her. In one instance when she repeatedly burst into a White House meeting, Roosevelt shrugged apologetically, “I can either run the country or I can control Alice, but I cannot possibly do both.”
After Roosevelt left office, Alice maintained a high profile in Washington society. She was banned from visiting the Taft White House after a voodoo doll of Mrs. Taft was found buried (by Alice) in the front lawn. President Wilson also banned her from White House society in retaliation for her making a lewd comment about him in public. Wilson was not her only target--she once remarked that her friend, Warrern Harding’s Vice President Calvin Coolidge, “looks as though he’s been weaned on a pickle.”
Theodore Roosevelt’s wife and mother die
On this day in 1884, future President Theodore Roosevelt’s wife and mother die, only hours apart.
Roosevelt was at work in the New York state legislature attempting to get a government reform bill passed when he was summoned home by his family. He returned home to find his mother, Mittie, had succumbed to typhoid fever. On the same day, his wife of four years, Alice Lee, died of Bright’s disease, a severe kidney ailment. Only two days before her death, Alice Lee had given birth to the couple’s daughter, Alice.
The double tragedy devastated Roosevelt. He ordered those around him not to mention his wife’s name. Burdened by grief, he abandoned politics, left the infant Alice with his sister Bamie, and, at the end of 1884, struck out for the Dakota territories, where he lived as a rancher and worked as a sheriff for two years. When not engrossed in raising cattle or acting as the local lawman, Roosevelt found time to indulge his passion for reading and writing history. After a blizzard wiped out his prized herd of cattle in 1885, Roosevelt decided to return to eastern society. Once back in New York in 1886, he again took up politics and took over raising his precocious daughter, Alice, who later became a national celebrity.
After stints in the Spanish-American War and as governor of New York, Roosevelt won a spot as William McKinley’s vice-presidential running mate in 1896. When McKinley died at the begnning of his second term in 1901, Roosevelt moved into the White House, where he and his family would spend the next eight years.
Alice grew to admire and respect her father yet, according to her memoirs and friends, she harbored resentment toward him for having abandoned her as a baby. Not long after he married his second wife, Edith, in 1886, Alice found herself competing not only with her father’s political cronies and new wife for his attention, but also with her five half-siblings who arrived in quick succession. The high-spirited Alice perhaps took to scandalous behaviour in retaliation.
The Roosevelt era coincided with a repressive time in women’s history, but the outspoken and independent Alice flouted acceptable behavior and revelled in the spotlight as first daughter. Alice’s activities as a young adult, such as smoking and staying out late with boys, irked her father, who nevertheless indulged her. In one instance when she repeatedly burst into a White House meeting, Roosevelt shrugged apologetically, “I can either run the country or I can control Alice, but I cannot possibly do both.”
After Roosevelt left office, Alice maintained a high profile in Washington society. She was banned from visiting the Taft White House after a voodoo doll of Mrs. Taft was found buried (by Alice) in the front lawn. President Wilson also banned her from White House society in retaliation for her making a lewd comment about him in public. Wilson was not her only target--she once remarked that her friend, Warrern Harding’s Vice President Calvin Coolidge, “looks as though he’s been weaned on a pickle.”
Silver Dollars
February 16, 1878
Silver dollars made legal
Strongly supported by western mining interests and farmers, the Bland-Allison Act-which provided for a return to the minting of silver coins--becomes the law of the land.
The strife and controversy surrounding the coinage of silver is difficult for most modern Americans to understand, but in the late 19th century it was a topic of keen political and economic interest. Today, the value of American money is essentially secured by faith in the stability of the government, but during the 19th century, money was generally backed by actual deposits of silver and gold, the so-called "bimetallic standard." The U.S. also minted both gold and silver coins.
In 1873, Congress decided to follow the lead of many European nations and cease buying silver and minting silver coins, because silver was relatively scarce and to simplify the monetary system. Exacerbated by a variety of other factors, this led to a financial panic. When the government stopped buying silver, prices naturally dropped, and many owners of primarily western silver mines were hurt. Likewise, farmers and others who carried substantial debt loads attacked the so-called "Crime of '73." They believed, somewhat simplistically, that it caused a tighter supply of money, which in turn made it more difficult for them to pay off their debts.
A nationwide drive to return to the bimetallic standard gripped the nation, and many Americans came to place a near mystical faith in the ability of silver to solve their economic difficulties. The leader of the fight to remonetize silver was the Missouri Congressman Richard Bland. Having worked in mining and having witnessed the struggles of small farmers, Bland became a fervent believer in the silver cause, earning him the nickname "Silver Dick."
With the backing of powerful western mining interests, Bland secured passage of the Bland-Allison Act, which became law on this day in 1878. Although the act did not provide for a return to the old policy of unlimited silver coinage, it did require the U.S. Treasury to resume purchasing silver and minting silver dollars as legal tender. Americans could once again use silver coins as legal tender, and this helped some struggling western mining operations. However, the act had little economic impact, and it failed to satisfy the more radical desires and dreams of the silver backers. The battle over the use of silver and gold continued to occupy Americans well into the 20th century.
Silver dollars made legal
Strongly supported by western mining interests and farmers, the Bland-Allison Act-which provided for a return to the minting of silver coins--becomes the law of the land.
The strife and controversy surrounding the coinage of silver is difficult for most modern Americans to understand, but in the late 19th century it was a topic of keen political and economic interest. Today, the value of American money is essentially secured by faith in the stability of the government, but during the 19th century, money was generally backed by actual deposits of silver and gold, the so-called "bimetallic standard." The U.S. also minted both gold and silver coins.
In 1873, Congress decided to follow the lead of many European nations and cease buying silver and minting silver coins, because silver was relatively scarce and to simplify the monetary system. Exacerbated by a variety of other factors, this led to a financial panic. When the government stopped buying silver, prices naturally dropped, and many owners of primarily western silver mines were hurt. Likewise, farmers and others who carried substantial debt loads attacked the so-called "Crime of '73." They believed, somewhat simplistically, that it caused a tighter supply of money, which in turn made it more difficult for them to pay off their debts.
A nationwide drive to return to the bimetallic standard gripped the nation, and many Americans came to place a near mystical faith in the ability of silver to solve their economic difficulties. The leader of the fight to remonetize silver was the Missouri Congressman Richard Bland. Having worked in mining and having witnessed the struggles of small farmers, Bland became a fervent believer in the silver cause, earning him the nickname "Silver Dick."
With the backing of powerful western mining interests, Bland secured passage of the Bland-Allison Act, which became law on this day in 1878. Although the act did not provide for a return to the old policy of unlimited silver coinage, it did require the U.S. Treasury to resume purchasing silver and minting silver dollars as legal tender. Americans could once again use silver coins as legal tender, and this helped some struggling western mining operations. However, the act had little economic impact, and it failed to satisfy the more radical desires and dreams of the silver backers. The battle over the use of silver and gold continued to occupy Americans well into the 20th century.
Memoirs: Eight Ways to Find Hidden Treasure in Memories
Look through old family albums and select a picture that intrigues you. Write about it for ten or fifteen minutes, setting down anything that comes to mind. (Better yet, select a picture from the shoe box of old photos that never made it into the album.)
Use an object that has been handed down in your family as a starting point for your writing.
Your father's old straight razor
Your grandmother's autograph book
The cookbook your mother received as a wedding present
Your grandfather's report card from third grade
Free associate about common events like:
Eating ice cream
Doing laundry
Grocery shopping
Mowing the lawn
What childhood images do they evoke? What was different about those events in your childhood, from the way they are carried out now?
Draw a memory map of:
Your old neighborhood
A secret childhood hideaway
A house you lived in as a child
Your childhood room
Take your time and put in as much detail as you can. Write about something you had forgotten and that emerged when you drew your map. Write about something that happened in the location you mapped.
Close your eyes and imagine yourself in a very specific time and place in your past:
The day you started school
Your sixteenth birthday party
Your first date
The time you took the driving test to get your first license
Allow yourself to daydream about the sounds you heard, what you saw, the tastes and the textures, the smells of this time and place. After you bring it to life in your mind's eye, begin writing.
Make a list of turning points, times when your life changed direction, times when you learned something and after that your life would never be the same.
Finding out your mom and dad lied to you about Santa Claus
The time one of your first pets died
The time you found our your parents were only human instead of super human
Pick one of these events and write about that.
List your mile-stones, events you have used to mark your progress through life:
Learning to ride a bike
Your first job
Losing your first tooth
Your first fist fight
Your first menstrual period
Learning how to drive
Write about these events, one at a time.
Begin with a prompt.
My favorite toy was…
One thing I wish I'd never done was…
I'm glad I…
The teacher I couldn't stand was…
My happiest moment came when…
I never felt so embarrassed as when I…
Although many books of prompts have been written, you can easily invent your own. Buy a pack of three by five cards and spend a couple hours brainstorming prompts. Put one on each card and carry a few with you wherever you go, so you can begin writing in spare moments throughout your day.
http://www.kporterfield.com/memoir/Memoir_Treasure.html
Use an object that has been handed down in your family as a starting point for your writing.
Your father's old straight razor
Your grandmother's autograph book
The cookbook your mother received as a wedding present
Your grandfather's report card from third grade
Free associate about common events like:
Eating ice cream
Doing laundry
Grocery shopping
Mowing the lawn
What childhood images do they evoke? What was different about those events in your childhood, from the way they are carried out now?
Draw a memory map of:
Your old neighborhood
A secret childhood hideaway
A house you lived in as a child
Your childhood room
Take your time and put in as much detail as you can. Write about something you had forgotten and that emerged when you drew your map. Write about something that happened in the location you mapped.
Close your eyes and imagine yourself in a very specific time and place in your past:
The day you started school
Your sixteenth birthday party
Your first date
The time you took the driving test to get your first license
Allow yourself to daydream about the sounds you heard, what you saw, the tastes and the textures, the smells of this time and place. After you bring it to life in your mind's eye, begin writing.
Make a list of turning points, times when your life changed direction, times when you learned something and after that your life would never be the same.
Finding out your mom and dad lied to you about Santa Claus
The time one of your first pets died
The time you found our your parents were only human instead of super human
Pick one of these events and write about that.
List your mile-stones, events you have used to mark your progress through life:
Learning to ride a bike
Your first job
Losing your first tooth
Your first fist fight
Your first menstrual period
Learning how to drive
Write about these events, one at a time.
Begin with a prompt.
My favorite toy was…
One thing I wish I'd never done was…
I'm glad I…
The teacher I couldn't stand was…
My happiest moment came when…
I never felt so embarrassed as when I…
Although many books of prompts have been written, you can easily invent your own. Buy a pack of three by five cards and spend a couple hours brainstorming prompts. Put one on each card and carry a few with you wherever you go, so you can begin writing in spare moments throughout your day.
http://www.kporterfield.com/memoir/Memoir_Treasure.html
Writer as Storyteller
Even if we don't admit it, all writers are glorified storytellers – from those of us who write novels to those of us who write copy for television commercials and the backs of cereal boxes. We may be sitting in front of computer screens rather than campfires, but we're still spinning tales with beginnings, middles and endings and we're still playing to the audience.
Keeping Readers Interested
The technique for telling an engrossing story hasn't really changed for centuries. The rules for good storytelling, and good essay writing, are:
• Grab your reader at the beginning. Either jump into the middle or the action or begin with an attention getting line, something to cue your reader about what your essay will contain and to pique his or her curiosity. Usually getting to this point requires some warm-up writing. Later, during revision, cutting these warm-up paragraphs strengthens the essay.
• Don't start with details. Only after your reader is hooked and you've achieved some degree of momentum, or rising action, with your words, do you start giving supporting details or background. When you do begin to fill in the details, they need to be laid down in small chunks because big ones will slow down the momentum too much.
• Consciously keep building the tension, action, or interest until you reach the climax, the high point of your story. The short breaks for exposition, or explaining, are important because they give the reader time to catch his or her breath before you raise the tension again.
• Use your conclusion as a place to pull together the loose ends. Falling action, the big sigh of relief, characterizes the last paragraph or lines of your essay where you tie everything together either explicitly or in a scene.
This article is a brief excerpt from Kay Marie Porterfield's Personal Essays Online Class.
http://www.kporterfield.com/memoir/Memoir_Plotting.html
Keeping Readers Interested
The technique for telling an engrossing story hasn't really changed for centuries. The rules for good storytelling, and good essay writing, are:
• Grab your reader at the beginning. Either jump into the middle or the action or begin with an attention getting line, something to cue your reader about what your essay will contain and to pique his or her curiosity. Usually getting to this point requires some warm-up writing. Later, during revision, cutting these warm-up paragraphs strengthens the essay.
• Don't start with details. Only after your reader is hooked and you've achieved some degree of momentum, or rising action, with your words, do you start giving supporting details or background. When you do begin to fill in the details, they need to be laid down in small chunks because big ones will slow down the momentum too much.
• Consciously keep building the tension, action, or interest until you reach the climax, the high point of your story. The short breaks for exposition, or explaining, are important because they give the reader time to catch his or her breath before you raise the tension again.
• Use your conclusion as a place to pull together the loose ends. Falling action, the big sigh of relief, characterizes the last paragraph or lines of your essay where you tie everything together either explicitly or in a scene.
This article is a brief excerpt from Kay Marie Porterfield's Personal Essays Online Class.
http://www.kporterfield.com/memoir/Memoir_Plotting.html
How to Write a Good Story
Everyone has a story to tell. There are many factors that can inspire a good story. Here are a few tips to release the writer in you. Its not hard and everyone can do it--just give it a try.
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